Description: This is a rare opportunity to own a piece of cricket sports history. The listing features three real photos of star players on the K.S. Ranjitsinhji team. These vintage photographs are a must-have for any cricket fan or collector of sports memorabilia. The photos capture the essence of the sport and the skill of the players in action. They are perfect for display in a home or office. This item is a unique addition to any collection and a great conversation starter. Don't miss out on the opportunity to own this piece of cricket history. Kumar Shri Ranjitsinhji, better known as K. S. Ranjitsinhji or 'Ranji,' was an Indian prince and an iconic figure in the world of cricket. He is often celebrated for his elegant batting style and for being one of the most prominent cricketers to popularize the leg glance. ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ Colonel Kumar Sri Sir Ranjitsinhji Vibhaji II,[a] GCSI GBE (10 September 1872 – 2 April 1933), often known as Ranji or K. S. Ranjitsinhji, was an Indian cricketer who later became ruler of his native Indian princely state of Nawanagar from 1907 to 1933. The main part of his cricket career was from 1893 to 1904 when, as one of the greatest batsmen of his time,[1] he played for Cambridge University, Sussex, London County and, in 15 Test matches, for England. Ranjitsinhji was an unorthodox batsman whose fast reactions and individual style were to revolutionise the game. Previously, batsmen had generally played forward and made shots to the off side; Ranjitsinhji took advantage of the improving quality of pitches in his era and played more on the back foot, both in defence and attack. He is particularly associated with one shot, the leg glance, which he popularised and may have invented. He has been called the "Father of Indian Cricket", as he was the earliest top-class Indian cricketer, but he has been criticised for his refusal to aid and encourage the development of cricket in India itself. The annual first-class championship of India, the Ranji Trophy, was named in his honour by Bhupinder Singh of Patiala who inaugurated the competition in 1935. Ranjitsinhji's nephew Duleepsinhji followed his path as a batsman playing first-class cricket for Cambridge, Sussex, and England. Early lifeBirthRanjitsinhji Jadeja was born on 10 September 1872 in Sadodar, a village in the state of Nawanagar in the western Indian province of Kathiawar in a Jadeja Rajput family.[2] He was the first son of a farmer, Jiwansinhji, and one of his wives.[3] His name meant "the lion who conquers in battle", although he frequently suffered ill health as a child.[3] Ranjitsinhji's family were related to the ruling family of the state of Nawanagar through his grandfather, and head of his family, Jhalamsinhji. The latter was a cousin of Vibhaji, the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar; Ranjitsinhji's biographers later claimed that Jhalamsinhji had shown bravery fighting for Vibhaji in a successful battle,[4] but Simon Wilde suggests that this may be an invention encouraged by Ranjitsinhji.[3][5][6] For the remainder of his life, Ranjitsinhji was sensitive about his family and deliberately presented a positive image of his parents.[7] Heir to the throneIn 1856, Vibhaji's son, Kalubha, was born, becoming heir to Vibhaji's throne. However, as Kalubha grew, he established a reputation for violence and terror. Among his actions were an attempt to poison his father and a multiple rape.[6][8] Consequently, Vibhaji disinherited his son in 1877 and, having no other suitable heir, followed custom by adopting an heir from another branch of his family, that of Jhalamsinhji. The first selected heir died within six months of being adopted,[9] either through fever or poisoning on the orders of Kalubha's mother.[10][11] The second choice, in October 1878, was Ranjitsinhji. Vibhaji took him to Rajkot to secure the approval of the ruling British and the young boy lived there for the next 18 months before joining the Rajkumar College, supported through this time by an allowance from Vibhaji.[12] Being discouraged by the ambition of Ranjitsinhji's family and the conduct of Jiwansinhji, Vibhaji never completed the adoption of Ranjitsinhji and continued trying to produce his own heir.[13] The prospect of Ranjitsinhji's accession seemed to vanish in August 1882 when one of the women of Vibhaji's court gave birth to a son, Jaswantsinhji.[14] Ranjitisinhji's later version of events, reported by his biographer Roland Wild, was that his adoption had been carried out in secret, for fear of Vibhaji's wives. According to Wild, "The boy's father and grandfather watched the ceremony which was officially recorded by the India Office, the Government of India, and the Bombay Government."[15][16] However, there is no record of any such event, which Simon Wilde says, "suggests, fairly conclusively, it never happened."[17] Roland Wild and Charles Kincaid, who wrote a book in 1931 which also put forward Ranjitsinhji's perspective, also said that Jaswantsinhji was not a legitimate heir, either through not being Vibhaji's son or through his mother not being legally married to Vibhaji.[b] However, the claims are either demonstrably wrong or not corroborated by the records.[c] The British authorities, unhappy to discover Ranjitsinhji was never adopted and impressed by his potential at the college, initially tried to persuade Vibhaji to retain Ranjitsinhji as his heir but the Jam Sahib insisted Jaswantsinhji should succeed him. In October 1884, the Government of India recognised Jaswantsinhji as Vibhaji's heir, but the Viceroy, Lord Ripon, believed that Ranjitsinhji should be compensated for losing his position.[20] EducationEven though Ranjitsinhji was no longer heir, Vibhaji increased his financial allowance but passed the responsibility for his education to the Bombay Presidency. With his fees coming from the allowance, Ranjitsinhji continued his education at the Rajkumar College. Although his material position remained unchanged, comments made at the time by the principal of the college, Chester Macnaghten, suggest that Ranjitsinhji was bitterly disappointed by his disinheritance. The college was organised and run like an English public school, and Ranjitsinhji began to excel.[21] Ranjitsinhji was introduced to cricket aged 10 or 11, and first represented the school in 1883. He was appointed captain in 1884 and maintained this position until 1888.[8] While he may have scored centuries for the school, the cricket was low standard, and very different from that played in England.[d] Ranjitsinhji did not take it particularly seriously and preferred tennis at the time.[23] No one was certain what would become of him once he left the college, but his academic prowess presented the solution of moving to England to study at Cambridge University.[24] Cambridge UniversityAcademic progressIn March 1888, Macnaghten took Ranjitsinhji to London, with two other students who exhibited potential. One of the events to which Macnaghten took Ranjitsinhji was a cricket match between Surrey County Cricket Club and the touring Australian team. Ranjitsinhji was enthralled by the standard of cricket, and Charles Turner, an Australian known more as a bowler, scored a century in front of a large crowd; Ranjitsinhji later said he did not see a better innings for ten years.[25] Macnaghten returned to India that September but arranged for Ranjitsinhji and one of the other students, Ramsinhji, to live in Cambridge. Their second choice of lodgings proved successful, living with the family of Reverend Louis Borrisow, at the time the chaplain of Trinity College, Cambridge, who tutored them for the next year. Ranjitsinhji lived with the Borrisows until 1892 and remained close to them throughout his life.[26] According to Roland Wild, Borrisow believed Ranjitsinhji was "lazy and irresponsible"[27] and obsessed with leisure activities including cricket, tennis, billiards and photography.[28] Wild also says that he might have struggled to acclimatise to English life and did not settle to academic study.[29] Possibly as a consequence, Ranjitsinhji failed the preliminary entrance exam to Trinity College in 1889, but he and Ramsinhji were allowed to enter the college as "youths of position". Nevertheless, Ranjitsinhji concentrated more on sport than study while at Cambridge, being content to work no more than necessary and he never graduated.[30] A Freemason, he was also a member of Isaac Newton University Lodge.[31] During the summer of 1890, Ranjitsinhji and Ramsinhji took a holiday in Bournemouth. For the trip, Ranjitsinhji adopted the name "K. S. [Kumar Sri] Ranjitsinhji". While in Bournemouth, he took more interest in cricket, achieving success in local matches which suggested he possessed talent, but little refinement of technique. According to Wild, by the time he returned to Trinity in September 1890, he was beginning to realise the benefit of others believing him to be a person of importance, something that was to lead to him adopting the title "Prince Ranjitsinhji", although he had no right to call himself a "Prince". Significantly, the trip planted the seed in his mind that he might find success as a cricketer.[32] In June 1892, Ranjitsinhji left the Borrisow home and, with monetary assistance from relations,[33] moved into his own rooms in the city of Cambridge. He lived in luxury and frequently entertained guests lavishly.[34] According to writer Alan Ross, Ranjitsinhji may have been lonely in his first years at Cambridge and probably encountered racism and prejudice. Ross believes that his generosity may have partly arisen from trying to overcome these barriers.[35] However, Ranjitsinhji increasingly lived beyond his means to the point where he experienced financial difficulty. He intended to pass the examinations to be called to the Bar and wrote to ask Vibhaji to provide more money to cover the costs; Vibhaji sent the money on the condition Ranjitsinhji returned to India once he passed the examination.[36] Ranjitsinhji intended to keep to this arrangement, although he did not plan a career as a barrister, but his debts were larger than he had thought and not only could he not afford the cost of the Bar examination, he was forced to leave Cambridge University, without graduating, in spring 1894.[37][38] Beginnings as a cricketerAt first, Ranjitsinhji had hoped to be awarded a Blue at tennis, but, possibly inspired by his visit to see the Australians play in 1888, he decided to concentrate on cricket. In 1889 and 1890, he played local cricket of a low standard,[39] but following his stay in Bournemouth, he set out to improve his cricket.[40] In June 1891 he joined the recently re-formed Cambridgeshire County Cricket Club and was successful enough in trial matches to represent the county in several games that September. His highest score was just 23 not out,[41] but he was selected for a South of England team to play a local side—which had 19 players to make the match more competitive—and his score of 34 was the highest in the game.[42] However, Ranjitsinhji had neither the strength nor the range of batting strokes to succeed at this stage.[43] Around this time, Ranjitsinhji began to work with Daniel Hayward, a first-class cricketer and the father of future England batsman Thomas Hayward, on his batting technique. His main fault was a tendency to back away from the ball when facing a fast bowler, making it more likely he would be dismissed. Possibly prompted by the suggestion of a professional cricketer who was bowling at him in the nets at Cambridge, he and Hayward began to practise with Ranjitsinhji's right leg tied to the ground. This affected his future batting technique and contributed to his adoption of the leg glance, a shot with which he afterwards became associated.[44] While practising, he continued to move his left leg, which was not tied, away from the ball; in this case, it moved to his right, towards point. He found he could then flick the ball behind his legs, a highly unorthodox shot and likely, for most players, to result in their dismissal.[45] Although other players had probably played this shot before, Ranjitsinhji was able to play it with unprecedented effectiveness.[46] Ranjitsinhji probably developed his leg glance with Hayward around spring 1892, for during the remainder of that year, he scored around 2,000 runs in all cricket, far more than he had previously managed, making at least nine centuries, a feat he had never previously achieved in England.[47][48][49] Ranjitsinhji began to establish a reputation for unorthodox cricket, and attracted some interest to his play,[50] but important cricketers did not take him seriously as he played contrary to the accepted way for an amateur or university batsman, established by the conventions in English public schools.[45] In one match, he was observed by the captain of the Cambridge University cricket team and future England captain Stanley Jackson, who found his batting and probably his appearance unusual but was not impressed.[51][52] University cricketAt least one Cambridge University cricketer believed that Ranjitsinhji should have played for the team in 1892; he played in two trial games with moderate success, but Jackson believed he was not good enough to play first-class cricket. Jackson was probably also the reason Ranjitisinhji did not play cricket for Trinity College until 1892, despite his success for other teams.[53] Jackson himself wrote in 1933 that, at the time, he lacked a "sympathetic interest for Indians",[54] and Simon Wilde has suggested that prejudice lay behind Jackson's attitude.[53] Jackson also said in 1893 that underestimating Ranjitsinhji's ability was a big mistake.[55] However, Ranjitsinhji made his debut for Trinity in 1892 after injury ruled out another player and his subsequent form, including a century, kept him in the college team, achieving a batting average of 44, only Jackson averaging more.[33][56] However, the other players ignored Ranjitsinhji in these matches.[57] That June, watched by Ranjitsinhji, Cambridge were defeated by Oxford in the University Match; Malcolm Jardine, an Oxford batsman, hit 140 runs, many with a version of the leg glance; Jackson would not alter his tactics and Jardine was able to score easy runs.[33] That winter, Jackson had taken part in a cricket tour of India, where he was impressed by the standard of cricket.[58][59] When he observed, at the start of the 1893 cricket season, the dedication with which Ranjitsinhji was practising in the nets to increase his concentration against the highly regarded professional bowlers Tom Richardson and Bill Lockwood,[60] Jackson asked Lockwood for his opinion. Lockwood noted how much Ranjitsinhji had improved through practice and told Jackson he believed Ranjitsinhji was better than several players in the university team.[61] Then, Ranjitsinhji's early form in 1893, scoring heavily for Trinity and performing reasonably well in a trial match, convinced Jackson. He made his first-class debut for Cambridge on 8 May 1893 against a team selected by Charles Thornton; he batted at number nine in the batting order and scored 18.[62] He maintained his place in the side over the next weeks, making substantial scores in several innings against bowlers with a good reputation. He grew in confidence as the season progressed; critics commented on several occasions on the effectiveness of his cut shot and his fielding was regarded as exceptionally good.[63] His highest and most notable score came during a defeat by the Australian touring team when he made 58 runs in 105 minutes, followed by a two-hour 37 not out in difficult batting conditions during the second innings. His batting made a great impression on spectators, who gave him an ovation at the end of the game. The game appears to be the first occasion in first-class cricket where Ranjitsinhji used the leg glance.[64][65] Ranjitsinhji was awarded his Blue after the match, and following some more successful but brief innings, he played in the university match. He was given a good reception by the crowd but scored only 9 and 0 in the game, which his team won.[66] With the Cambridge season over, Ranjitsinhji's batting average of 29.90 placed him third in the side's averages, with five scores over 40. He took nineteen catches, mainly at slip. Such was his impact that Ranjitsinhji was selected in representative games, playing for the Gentlemen against the Players at the Oval and for a team combining past and present players for both Oxford and Cambridge Universities against the Australians, scoring a total of 50 runs in three innings.[67][68] Following his success at cricket, Ranjitsinhji was more widely accepted within Trinity.[34] His new-found popularity led to the creation by his friends of a nickname; finding his name difficult, they initially dubbed him "Smith", then shortened his full name to "Ranji", which remained with him for the rest of his life.[69][70] At this time, Ranjitsinhji may have furthered rumours of his royal background or great wealth, and he was further encouraged to spend money to entertain others and reinforce the impression of his status.[67] Several English first-class counties made enquiries over his availability to play for them, and he was invited to make a speech at a Cambridge club dinner, attended by prominent figures in Cambridge; his general remarks about the good treatment of Indians in England were reported in the press as being in support of Indian federation and suggested the public were eager to hear his words.[71] However, Ranjitsinhji was unable to continue his cricket with Cambridge as he had to leave before the start of the 1894 season.[38] First spell with SussexCounty debutFollowing his failure to take the Bar examinations and return to India, Ranjitsinhji's allowance was stopped by Vibhaji. Ranjitsinhji, owing money to many creditors in Cambridge who included personal friends, appealed to the British in India and Vibhaji was persuaded to advance a loan to cover Ranjitsinhji's expenses before his expected return to India.[72] Simon Wilde believes this incident encouraged a belief in Ranjitsinhji that someone else would always cover his debts.[73] Even so, he was not called to the Bar in 1894, or at any point afterwards. Nor did he make any attempt to return to India, despite his assurances to Vibhaji. Instead, his developing friendship with Billy Murdoch and C. B. Fry led to Ranjitsinhji becoming interested in playing cricket for Sussex.[74] Murdoch, the Sussex captain, wished to increase his team's playing strength. It is likely that, although he would play as an amateur, the club offered Ranjitsinhji a financial inducement, as was common for leading amateurs; given his monetary difficulties and unwillingness to return home, he was unlikely to refuse the offer.[75] However, these arrangements came too late for Ranjitsinhji to play for the county in 1894, and his cricket that year was limited to matches for the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC), festival games and benefit matches. Consequently, he could neither find any batting form nor build on his achievements of the previous year. Although struggling to bat against off spin in one game, he scored 94 while sharing a partnership of 200 runs with W. G. Grace in another.[76][77] In eight first-class games, he scored 387 runs at an average of 32.25.[78] Despite debts which continued to mount,[79] Ranjitsinhji prepared thoroughly before the 1895 season, practising in the nets at Cambridge with Tom Hayward and scoring heavily in club matches.[80] Although Sussex were not a strong team, Ranjitsinhji was not certain of a place in the side.[81] His debut came in a match against the MCC; after scoring 77 not out in his first innings and then taking six wickets, he scored his maiden first-class century in the second. In 155 minutes, he scored 150 runs and took his team close to an improbable victory; he became increasingly attacking throughout the innings and dominated the scoring. At the end, although his team lost, he was given an ovation by the crowd who were impressed by his strokeplay.[82] Yet it is unlikely that he met the qualification rules in force at the time for appearing in the County Championship; this was hinted at by Wisden Cricketers' Almanack, but no protests were made.[83] For the rest of the season, Ranjitsinhji made a vivid impression wherever he played. Crowds were substantially increased at matches in which he appeared and he established a reputation for brilliant batting and shots on the leg side.[84] Although, after his debut, he made a slow start in poor weather, he batted himself into good form in several matches on Brighton's good batting pitch. He scored centuries against Middlesex and Nottinghamshire in very difficult batting conditions, and his batting against the latter was regarded by critics as among the best of the season.[85] He was less effective at the end of the season, possibly suffering from mental and physical fatigue, but his overall record of 1,775 runs at an average of 49.31 placed him fourth in the national averages.[78][86] Ranjitsinhji was particularly popular at Brighton; Simon Wilde writes: "The crowds would stroll the outfield during intervals in play at a loss to explain what he did: the most disdainful flick of the wrists, and he could exasperate some of England's finest bowlers; the most rapid sweep of the arms, and the ball was charmed to any part of the field he chose, as though he had in his hands not a bat but a wizard's wand."[87] Shortly before the season began, Vibhaji died; his 12-year-old son Jaswantsinhji officially succeeded to the throne on 10 May, while Ranjitsinhji was playing for Sussex against the MCC, taking the new name Jassaji. The British appointed an Administrator to rule until he reached an appropriate age to assume the responsibility of a ruler.[88] As Ranjitsinhji's fame increased throughout 1895, journalists pressed for more information on his background. Some stories circulated that his father was the ruler of an Indian state and that he had been deprived of his rightful position as ruler of Nawanagar; despite his protestations that this was not correct, it is likely that Ranjitsinhji was the source of these stories. It is possible he began planning to contest the position, prompted by the enquiries of the press and his claim to be a prince.[89][90] Test debut and controversyRanjitsinhji played several large innings at the start of the 1896 season, scoring faster and impressing critics with more daring shots. Before June, he had hit hundreds against the highly regarded Yorkshire bowlers and in match-saving performances against Gloucestershire and Somerset and became the second batsman, and first amateur, to reach 1,000 runs in the season. Innings of 79 and 42 against the touring Australian team underlined his status as one of the few batsmen to cope with the visitors' bowling spearhead, the highly regarded Ernie Jones; he concentrated on the leg-glance and cut shot, which the Australians were unable to counter through altered tactics.[91] These performances brought him into contention for a place in the England team for the first Test match, but although his form merited selection, he was not chosen by the MCC committee which chose the team. Lord Harris was primarily responsible for the decision, possibly under influence from the British Government; Simon Wilde believed they may have feared establishing a precedent that made races interchangeable or wished to curtail the involvement of Indians in British political life.[92] Bateman's assessment is less sympathetic to Harris: "the high-minded imperialist Lord Harris, who had just returned from a spell of colonial duty in India, opposed his qualification for England on the grounds of race".[93] Even so, the decision to omit Ranjitsinhji took a long time, proved unpopular when it was made and led to discussion in the press.[94] The Times correspondent commented during the first Test: "There was some feeling about K. S. Ranjitsinhji's absence, but although the Indian Prince has learnt all his cricket in England he could scarcely, if the title of the match were to be adhered to, have been included in the English eleven",[95] but The Field supported his inclusion.[96] Meanwhile, Ranjitsinhji's good form continued. The team for the second Test was chosen by a different committee,[e] and Ranjitsinhji was included, probably for financial reasons to attract more spectators.[97] The batsman insisted that he would only play if the Australian team had no objections, but the Australian captain was pleased that the Indian would be included.[98] Discussion continued in the press over how appropriate it was that he should play for England, but from that point, Ranjitsinhji was considered eligible to play for England. The controversy may have upset Ranjitsinhji as his form wavered while the first Test was played and on his next appearance at Lord's, before the MCC committee, he made a pointed attack on the bowling in a rapid innings of 47.[99] Ranjitsinhji made his Test debut on 16 July 1896. After a cautious 62 in his first innings, he batted again when England followed on, 181 runs behind. After the second day, he had scored 42 and on the final morning, he scored 113 runs before the lunch interval, surviving a fast, hostile spell from Jones and playing many shots on the leg side to reach the first century scored that season against the tourists. His final score was 154 not out,[100] and the next highest score for England on the last day was 19. He was given an enthusiastic reception by the crowd and the report in Wisden stated: "[The] famous young Indian fairly rose to the occasion, playing an innings that could, without exaggeration, be fairly described as marvellous.[101] He punished the Australian bowlers in a style that, up to that period of the season, no other English batsman had approached. He repeatedly brought off his wonderful strokes on the leg side, and for a while had the Australian bowlers quite at his mercy".[102] Although Australia won the match, the players were astonished by the way Ranjitsinhji batted.[103] Not everyone was pleased at his success. Home Gordon, a journalist, praised Ranjitsinhji in a conversation with an MCC member; the man angrily threatened to have Gordon expelled from the MCC for "having the disgusting degeneracy to praise a dirty black." Gordon also heard other MCC members complaining about "a nigger showing us how to play the game of cricket".[104] Over the next weeks, Ranjitsinhji lost form, and after failing twice in the third Test, missed the last day of the match suffering from asthma,[105] but he scored heavily after this. After sharing a big partnership with Fry for Sussex against the Australian team, he scored 40 and 165, with little support from other batsmen, to save the match against Lancashire, the runners up in the County Championship. In the following match against Yorkshire, on 22 August 1896, the County Champions that season, he scored two centuries on the last day of the game as Sussex saved the match after following on; prior to this, only four men had scored two centuries in the same first-class game, and as of 2011, no one else has scored two on the same day.[106][107] By the end of the season, he had scored 2,780 runs, beating the record aggregate for a season held by W. G. Grace, and hit 10 centuries, equalling another record of Grace. His average of 57.92 was the highest of the season.[78][108] Even so, Sussex finished bottom of the County Championship as Ranjitsinhji had little batting support and the team's bowling was ineffective.[109] Succession dispute Ranjitsinhji caricatured by Spy for Vanity Fair, 1897Ranjitsinhji's fame increased after 1896, and among the praise for his cricket were hints in the press that he intended to pursue a political career, following other Indians in England. Instead he began to turn his attention to the Nawanagar succession, beginning to make enquiries in India as to his position.[110] Meanwhile, he began to cultivate potentially beneficial connections; at Queen Victoria's jubilee celebrations, he established a friendship with Pratap Singh, the regent of Jodhpur, whom he later falsely described as his uncle.[111] Ranjitsinhji decided to return to India to further his case, prompted by the decision of Vibhaji's grandson Lakhuba to dispute the succession. Meanwhile, the financial expectations of behaving as a prince pushed Ranjitsinhji even further into debt, and his allowance had been stopped after he had been given an advance on it to cover earlier money owed. He wrote to Willoughby Kennedy, the English Administrator of Nawanagar, asking for money but none was forthcoming.[112] His financial situation eased when a serious illness confined him to the house of an acquaintance. He took the opportunity to begin work on a cricket book which a publisher had invited him to write; Ranjitsinhji contributed seven chapters and other writers contributed the rest, then he and Fry revised the book together while travelling through Europe in the spring of 1897. The book was released in August 1897 under the title The Jubilee Book of Cricket,[f] and was a success, both commercially and with the critics:[114] the review by Francis Thompson was entitled, "A Prince of India on the Prince of Games".[93] Nevertheless, he was approaching bankruptcy by the end of 1897 and there are indications, such as an increased temper, that he felt the pressure.[115] Having been named one of the Wisden Cricketers of the Year for his performances in 1896,[55] Ranjitsinhji began the 1897 season strongly, scoring 260 for Sussex against the MCC then, playing for MCC against Lancashire hit 157. A succession of low scores on a series of difficult pitches ended when he scored three centuries in July, but in the remainder of the season he only once passed fifty.[116] He scored 1,940 runs at 45.12, figures which matched other leading batsmen, but his relative loss of form, noted by critics, was owed partly to ill health. He suffered from asthma throughout the season, and some commentators blamed the stress of producing his book. However, he may also have been distracted by his interest in the Nawanagar succession.[117] Tour of AustraliaRanjitsinhji was chosen to tour Australia with Andrew Stoddart's team during the winter of 1897–98. The team was defeated 4–1 by Australia, who were superior tactically and had the better players in general.[118] Ranjitsinhji was one of the few successes on the tour and scored 1,157 runs in first-class matches at an average of 60.89.[119] He quickly acclimatised to the unfamiliar conditions and scored 189 in the first game, followed by scores of 64 and 112 in the following two matches.[120] However, shortly before the Test series was due to begin, Ranjitsinhji fell ill with quinsy and would have been unfit for the first Test but for heavy rain which postponed the start for three days.[121] When the match began, Ranjitsinhji batted towards the end of the first day and, still weak from his illness, played carefully; he was exhausted after scoring 39 not out. The next morning, as England lost wickets, he attacked the bowlers and took his score to 175, scoring mainly from cuts and leg glances. He batted for 215 minutes and reached the highest score for England in Test matches; the record lasted for six years. England won the match by nine wickets, but this was their only success of the series.[122][123] Ranjitsinhji's health remained poor, but he played in the rest of the series.[124] He scored a half-century in one innings of each of the next three Tests, each time facing a large Australian total. He and Archie MacLaren were the only two tourists to come to terms with the conditions and bowling; despite being labelled a poor starter by the press, Ranjitsinhji batted cautiously in each match, possibly attempting to emulate the Australian approach of accumulating runs carefully.[125] The only Test in which Ranjitsinhji failed to reach fifty was the fifth, when England were defeated for the fourth time in succession. Even so, he scored 457 runs at an average of 50.77 in the series.[126] Ranjitsinhji's tour was controversial in one aspect only: a series of articles he wrote for an Australian magazine. Although highly self-critical in the articles, he criticised, among other things, the behaviour of the crowds, the refusal of Australian critics to accept that England had to bat in poor conditions in the second Test, and some opposing players. He also supported the decision of an umpire to no-ball some deliveries from Ernie Jones, in a match against Stoddart's team, for illegally throwing the ball rather than bowling it. He was generally very popular in Australia with crowds, the general public and influential figures in society,[127] although following these comments, the crowds at some matches barracked him while he was batting.[128] At the end of the tour, he wrote an open letter to mend his relations with the Australian public,[129] but in With Stoddart's team in Australia, he wrote of the "regrettable" incident of "merciless", "uncomplimentary and insulting" barracking.[130][131] Cricketing peak and declineReturn to IndiaIn April 1898, Stoddart's cricket team returned to England via Colombo. On arrival there, Ranjitsinhji left the team to return to India with the intention of pursuing his claim to the throne of Nawanagar.[132][133] He spent the remainder of the year in India and did not return to England until March 1899.[134] Initially, he tried to establish support for his claim, including his argument that Jassaji was illegitimate, among the Indian princes. Later, he met Pratap Singh, who had arranged for Ranjitsinhji to receive an honorary state appointment with an associated income. Pratap Singh also introduced him to Rajinder Singh, the Maharaja of Patiala, a very wealthy individual. Rajinder was very pro-British and an enthusiastic cricketer and soon became friends with Ranjitsinhji; he subsequently provided Ranjitsinhji with another source of income.[135][136] Ranjitsinhji travelled extensively throughout India, trying to build support among the princes and local officials, and received an enthusiastic reception from the public wherever he went. He also spent time with his mother and family in Sarador.[133][137] He played plenty of cricket during his visit, with mixed success.[138] Although he scored 257 in one game, in another he failed to score in either innings, the only time this happened to him in any form of cricket.[139] The British administration in India were concerned by Ranjitsinhji; some individuals suspected that he intended to cause trouble in Nawanagar and wished to keep him out of the region. Others supported him, believing he had been treated unfairly. Kennedy, the Administrator of Nawanagar, successfully lobbied the Government of Bombay and the India Office in London to have Ranjitsinhji's allowance doubled. But concerns among senior figures in the Government of Bombay about whether this was appropriate and over any potential agitation in Nawanagar by Ranjitsinhji meant that Kennedy's appeal to have the allowance further increased was unsuccessful.[140] However, the increase was dependent upon him no longer pursuing his claim to the throne and not becoming involved in any plots in Nawanagar, and Ranjitsinhji was reluctant to have any conditions imposed on him.[141] Then on 28 September, Ranjitsinhji wrote to the Secretary of State for India, Lord George Hamilton, through the Government of Bombay, stating his claim. He argued that he had been adopted as heir before being set aside without an enquiry, and that Jassaji was illegitimate.[142] The Government of Bombay rejected the appeal but Ranjitsinhji was able to use his contact with Rajinder Singh to meet the Viceroy, Lord Elgin. Consequently, the Government of India began to investigate and under Elgin's successor, Lord Curzon, Ranjitsinhji's application was sent to Hamilton in London.[143] Eventually, after Ranjitsinhji had returned to England, Hamilton also rejected the claim, but Simon Wilde believes the support he received from the princes and British officials, and the failure of anyone to point out that his adoption by Vibhaji was never carried out, must have encouraged Ranjitsinhji that his claim was viable.[144] Having done all he could in India for the moment, he returned to England in March 1899.[145] Record breaker Ranjitsinhji c. 1900.Returning to England at the beginning of the 1899 cricket season, Ranjitsinhji immediately resumed playing cricket.[146] However, his approach to batting had changed during his absence, and he showed greater determination to succeed. His health seemed improved and financial assistance from his supporters in India gave him respite from monetary worries.[147] Having gained weight, he was more noticeably muscular and could drive more effectively than previously.[148] After an uncertain start on a series of difficult pitches for batting, he informed the selectors he would not play in the first Test against the Australians, who were touring England once again.[149] He was selected anyway and after scoring 42 in the first innings, he hit 93 not out in the second which ensured England drew the match after losing early wickets on the last day. His tactics were unorthodox as he took risks to ensure that he faced most of the bowling, even though he was batting with recognised batsmen. However, as the innings progressed, he rediscovered his batting touch.[150] During June, he scored 1,000 runs: he scored four centuries, including a score of 197 which saved the game against Surrey, the eventual County Champions.[151] He scored runs against the strong bowling of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and in August embarked on a sequence of 12 innings in which his lowest scores were 42 and 48 which enabled him to score 1,000 runs in August; no one had previously scored 1,000 runs in two separate months of the same season. In total, he scored 3,159 runs at an average of 63.18, becoming the first batsman to pass 3,000 first-class runs in a season, and made eight centuries.[152] He was less successful against the Australians after the first Test, possibly through over-anxiety to replicate his form for Sussex. He was dismissed for low scores in the second and third games, but was slightly more successful with 21 and 49 not out in the fourth and he hit 54 in the final match. In a low-scoring series, Ranjitsinhji scored 278 runs at 46.33, the second highest average for England.[126][153] In June 1899, Ranjitsinhji was appointed Sussex captain after Murdoch retired, ahead of other amateur cricketers. George Brann captained the county's first match after Murdoch stood down but he may have found the position to be too difficult, and Ranjitsinhji led the team for the remainder of the season.[154] The press regarded his first season as a success as a late sequence of matches without defeat took Sussex to fifth in the County Championship, the highest position achieved by the team to that point.[155] As captain, Ranjitsinhji took great care over details such as weather conditions, but some of his innovations, such as the frequent changing of the person bowling or implementing fielding practice, were unpopular with the players. He took the opportunity of leading the side to increase the amount of bowling he did, taking 31 wickets in the season.[156] But the team's lack of effective bowlers was a problem before Ranjitsinhji took over.[54] Ranjitsinhji continued to score heavily throughout the 1900 season. After a slow start in cold weather, in the space of nine days, he hit scores of 97, 127, 222 and 215 not out, followed by 192 a week later.[157] After a brief sequence of low scores, he scored 1,000 runs in July and maintained his form until the end of the season; in his final 19 innings, he failed to reach 40 only three times. He was successful in a variety of conditions and match situations, and after some criticism of his ability to play on difficult pitches for batting, scored 89 against Somerset and 202 against Middlesex on rain affected pitches. Against Leicestershire, he achieved his highest score until then, making 275 in five hours.[158] He hit a record-breaking fifth double-hundred of the season in his penultimate game; this was his eleventh century of the season, which was also briefly a record.[g][160] Ranjitsinhji's final aggregate was 3,065 runs, the second highest total after that which he scored the previous year, at an average of 87.57; this placed him at the top of the national averages.[161][162] In response to Ranjitsinhji's success, opposing captains began to adopt tactics to counter his leg-side shots, placing extra fielders on that side of the pitch to either block runs or to catch the ball. Consequently, Ranjitsinhji played the drive more frequently. Wisden reported: "[He] became more and more a driving player ... Without abandoning his delightful leg-side strokes or beautifully timed cuts, he probably got the majority of his runs by drives—a notable change from his early years as a great cricketer".[163] His change of technique was effective statistically; he scored 2,468 runs at 70.51 and was third in the national averages.[78][164] However, he was less consistent than in the previous two seasons, never hitting more than three successive scores above 40. He suffered from ill-health early in the season and struggled in the first months. His later form was better and he made the highest score of his career, 285 against Somerset, but several leg break bowlers took his wicket and some of his innings were played in easier batting conditions or during less competitive circumstances.[165] Failure in 1902According to Simon Wilde, part of the reason for Ranjitsinhji's reduced output in 1901 was the death in November 1900 of Rajinder Singh; the subsequent reduction in his income would have presented Ranjitsinhji with financial difficulties.[166] By November 1901, Ranjitsinhji faced bankruptcy and after an unavailing request to Nawangar for a resumption and increase of his allowance, only an appeal to the India Office prevented a court action against him. Through his solicitor, Ranjitsinhji claimed that his debt to one creditor only came through his acting on behalf of Pratap Singh and Sardar Singh, the Maharaja of Jodhpur.[167] In December, Ranjitsinhji travelled to India to attempt to secure financial guarantees from the council acting for Rajinder Singh's son and from Jodhpur but he was unsuccessful in his attempt to get the support of the Maharao of Kutch, who was sympathetic but unwilling to help; he nevertheless later received a request for a substantial sum of money which Ranjitsinhji claimed he had been promised.[168] Ranjitsinhji's Indian trip caused him to miss the start of the 1902 season; no reason was given for his absence and the press and public did not know where he was.[h][169] Ranjitsinhji returned to England in mid-May and immediately resumed the captaincy of Sussex. However, a succession of low scores and uncertain performances suggested that he was neither mentally nor physically fit for cricket and Simon Wilde writes that his failure to secure support in India and the continued pressure of threatened bankruptcy placed him in a difficult situation.[170] The Australian cricket team was touring England once more, and Ranjitsinhji, having played against the team for the MCC, was selected for the first Test. However, he seemed to be nervous and struggled to concentrate, running out his captain, Archie MacLaren before he was out himself for 13.[171] Wisden noted: "a misunderstanding, for which Ranjitsinhji considered himself somewhat unjustly blamed, led to MacLaren being run out, and then Ranjitsinhji himself quite upset by what had happened, was clean bowled".[172] Although he scored 135 for Sussex shortly afterwards, in the second Test he was out without scoring. Over the next few weeks, Ranjitsinhji made good starts to several innings but lost his wicket to uncharacteristic lapses and leg-break bowlers continued to trouble him.[173] He missed several matches, far more than he had missed in other seasons.[174][175] However, in favourable batting circumstances he played two large innings in this period, hitting 230 against Essex and 234 against Surrey. An injury in the former game caused Ranjitsinhji to miss the third Test, lost by England, although his lack of confidence may have played a part in his decision.[176] He returned for the fourth Test which England narrowly lost. However, he faced serious distractions from his parlous financial situation as one of his creditors presented him with a demand for payment shortly before the game. Ranjitsinhji claimed after the match, falsely, that Pratap Singh intended to pay the debt but needed approval from the India Office, but it is likely that Ranjitsinhji anticipated another petition in bankruptcy going before a court and that this affected his performance in the Test.[177] Showing signs of nerves, and never looking comfortable while batting, Ranjitsinhji scored 2 runs in the first innings and 4 in the second. In the latter innings, when England had a relatively small target to chase for victory, he looked to have lost all confidence and could have been dismissed several times; the Australian players thought he played more poorly than they had ever seen. His lack of belief may also have contributed to the defeat, as Fred Tate notoriously dropped an important catch fielding, according to Simon Wilde, in a position which Ranjitsinhji was more likely to fill in normal circumstances.[178] Wilde writes: "[Several members of the team] failed to play their part, notably Ranjitsinhji, whose abject performance was in marked contrast to his former days of splendour. The real reason for his poor performance has remained the knowledge of only a very few. At the time, a polite veil was drawn over his failure, but he was never to play for England again."[179] In 15 Test matches, all against Australia, he scored 989 runs at an average of 44.96.[180] After the Test, Ranjitsinhji played only a few more games that season. After two batting failures for Sussex, he dropped out of the team, even though the side were in contention for the County Championship, eventually finishing second. Part of the reason may have been to pre-empt his omission from the England team for the final Test, a match he attended as a spectator, but he did not return to Sussex after the match. The press speculated he had walked out on the team; among the reasons suggested were disappointment with the performances of the side, dissatisfaction with the bowlers and efforts to recruit new players, and his falling out with the professional players. The local press criticised him for abandoning the team at a crucial phase of the season, and praised Brann, his replacement. Nevertheless, Ranjitsinhji preferred to play for MCC against the Australians, scoring 60 and 10.[181] His three substantial innings gave him a batting record for the season which partially masked his difficulties: 1,106 runs at an average of 46.08, placing him second in the national averages.[78][182] Ranjitsinhji managed to raise enough money, probably through a loan, to head off the threat of bankruptcy.[183] After spending time with Pratap Singh who was in London for the coronation of Edward VII, Ranjitsinhji went to Gilling East in Yorkshire, where the Reverend Borrisow now lived. He spent the winter there, adding to the speculation surrounding him. He became very close to Borrisow's eldest daughter, Edith, and the pair may have become engaged around this time.[184] Final regular seasons Ranjitsinhji c. 1905.After alleviating some of his financial concerns through journalism and writing, Ranjitsinhji was able to return to cricket.[185] Like the previous season, cricket in 1903 was badly affected by weather, resulting in many difficult batting pitches. Ranjitsinhji scored 1,924 runs at 56.58 to achieve second place in the national batting averages, but his consistency never matched that of his earlier years and he was frustrated by his form. He played more regularly for Sussex and missed just two matches but displayed a reduced commitment to the club and resigned the captaincy in December, Fry assuming the role.[186] After a slow start, Ranjitsinhji found his form and made large scores against the leading counties until a pulled muscle affected his form in July. The difficult pitches forced him to play more defensively than usual and on a couple of occasions, crowds jeered him for slow scoring. The press also criticised his decision to prolong one Sussex innings until he had completed his own double century, adversely affecting his team's chances of victory. In separate matches, Len Braund and Walter Mead, bowlers who had troubled him in previous years, both took his wicket before he had scored many runs.[187] Ranjitsinhji was not considered for the MCC tour of Australia that winter, despite the unavailability of several leading amateurs; instead, he returned to India.[188] There, he made further inquiries regarding the succession to the Nawanagar throne and met British officials. Loans from an acquaintance from his school days, Mansur Khachar, as well as from the Nawab of Junagadh, allowed him to return to England for the following season.[189] In 1904, Ranjitsinhji led the batting averages for the fourth time, scoring 2,077 runs at 74.17.[190] In a ten-week sequence between June and August, he scored eight hundreds and five fifties, including innings against strong attacks and the leading counties. This included a highest score of 207 not out against Lancashire where Wisden reported that "From the first ball to the last in that superb display he was at the highest pitch of excellence, and beyond that the art of batting cannot go." However, he missed eight Sussex games in total, suggesting his commitments had begun to lie elsewhere. Furthermore, many of his runs came in less important matches, away from the pressure of the County Championship.[191] Not initially invited to play for the Gentlemen at Lord's, he was a last minute replacement and subsequently captained the team.[192] His innings of 121, regarded by some critics as one of his best innings, helped the team to score an unlikely 412 runs in the final innings to defeat the Players. When the season ended with a series of festival games, although it was not known at the time, Ranjitsinhji's career as a regular cricketer was effectively over.[193] Remainder of cricket career Punch cartoon (1907)Four years after his previous appearances, and now known as H. H. the Jam Sahib of Nawanagar, Ranjitsinhji returned to play cricket in England in 1908. Playing mainly in Sussex and London, he had put on weight and could no longer play in the same extravagant style he had previously used. Playing in many less competitive fixtures, he scored 1,138 runs at 45.52, finishing seventh in the averages.[194][195] The effect on Sussex was not positive; Wisden noted that the irregular appearances of Ranjitsinhji and Fry, the team captain, distracted the rest of the team.[196] In one match, Ranjitsinhji was responsible for the Sussex team failing to appear during a match, risking the forfeiture of the game, when he encouraged the team to remain at his residence in unsettled weather; conditions at the ground, and the opposition, were ready for play while the Sussex team remained 22 miles away.[197] In 1912, aged 39, Ranjitsinhji returned to England and played once more. Although announcing himself available to play for England in that season's Test matches, he was not selected. Restricted for a period by a wrist injury, he nevertheless scored four centuries, including one against the touring Australian team. At times, his form briefly touched that of his best years but most of his cricket was played in the South of England. He scored 1,113 runs at 42.81, placing him eighth in the averages.[198] Ranjitsinhji's last first-class cricket came in 1920; having lost an eye in a hunting accident, he played only three matches and found he could not focus on the ball properly. Possibly prompted by embarrassment at his performance, he later claimed his sole motivation for returning was to write a book about batting with one eye; such a book was never published.[199] In total, Ranjitsinhji scored 24,692 runs at an average of 56.37, the highest career average of a batsman based mainly in England until Geoffrey Boycott retired with 56.83 in 1986. He scored 72 hundreds.[200] Failure to support Indian cricketMihir Bose has commented that Ranjitsinhji "has no place in Indian cricket history".[201] This is because, though he sometimes returned to India while he was playing in England, he never played cricket there except on purely social occasions. Anthony de Mello wrote that he did absolutely nothing for Indian sport. Whenever the fledgling Indian Cricket Board sought Ranjitsinhji's advice, the blunt answer they received was always: "Duleep and I are English cricketers".[202] Bose says Ranjitsinhji demonstrated duality. In England he was a cricketer and in India a ruler. It is argued that Ranjitsinhji saw cricket as a weapon for his own personal advancement.[203] It is considered an irony that Ranjitsinhji has been called the "Father of Indian Cricket".[204] Playing styleIn his day, Ranjitsinhji's batting was regarded as innovative and history has come to look upon him as "one of the most original stylists to have ever played the game".[131] His great friend and Sussex captain, C. B. Fry commented on Ranjitsinhji's "distinctiveness", attributing it to "a combination of perfect poise and the quickness peculiar to the athletic Hindu".[205] Neville Cardus described English cricket, before the arrival of Ranjitsinhji as "English through and through", but that when Ranjitsinhji batted, "a strange light from the East flickered in the English sunshine".[206] When Ranjitsinhji was appointed a Cricketer of the Year by "Wisden Cricketers' Almanack" in its 1897 annual, the editor wrote about individuality of his "distinctive style of play" and how that depended on, first, an "extreme keenness of eye" and, second, "great power and flexibility of wrist".[207] Jam Sahib of Nawanagar Ranjitsinhji circa 1910 BustReturn to IndiaDespite the discovery of an assassination plot on his life, in which Ranjitsinhji was implicated,[186] Jassaji took over the administration of Nawanagar from the British in March 1903. Roland Wild later described it as "the shattering of [Ranjitsinhji's] dreams".[208] During the 1904 season, Ranjitsinhji had a long meeting with Lord Curzon during a Sussex match. Immediately afterwards, he chose to miss three Championship games at short notice and visited Edith Borrisow in Gilling for 10 days; Simon Wilde suggests that Ranjitsinhji had at this point chosen to leave for India after the cricket season.[209] On 9 October 1904, Ranjitsinhji departed for India, accompanied by Archie MacLaren, with whom Ranjitsinhji had developed a close friendship on the tour to Australia in 1897–98, and who now became his personal secretary.[210][211] In India, Ranjitsinhji and MacLaren were joined by Mansur Khachar and Lord Hawke, the Yorkshire captain. Ranjitsinhji tried unsuccessfully to arrange an official meeting with Curzon to discuss the succession to Nawanagar and then chose to remain in India to cultivate his relationships with British officials, although there was little chance he could achieve much with regard to Nawanagar.[212] MacLaren returned to England ready for the 1905 season, and Ranjitsinhji may have intended to follow. Instead, Mansur Khuchar discovered that Ranjitsinhji had attempted to trick him into providing more money and had repeatedly lied to him; in May 1905 he took Ranjitsinhji to Bombay High Court, insisting Ranjitsinhji repaid the money lent to him. This action kept him in India throughout 1905 and most of 1906 and prevented his return to England, where his absence was noted but could not be explained.[213] SuccessionAlthough he had been in good health, Jassaji died on 14 August 1906 after developing a fever two weeks previously. Although no surviving papers suggest foul play, according to Simon Wilde there is circumstantial evidence that Jassaji may have been poisoned; at least one later ruler of Nawanagar believed that Ranjitsinhji had plotted Jassaji's murder.[214] Contrary to precedent, British officials did not make a decision over his successor for six months. The three major claimants who presented a case were Ranjitsinhji, Lakhuba and Jassaji's widows. Ranjitsinhji's claim once again rested on his claim to have been adopted by Vibhaji; Lakhuba claimed the throne through his position as Vibhaji's grandson, and like Ranjitsinhji, his prior claims had been rejected. Jassaji's widows claimed through precedent that they should choose a successor as Jassaji had not done so.[215][216] Taking advantage of being in India, Ranjitsinhji quickly persuaded Mansur Khachar to withdraw his court claim in return for paying him in full upon his succession. He also secured declarations of direct or partial support from several other states. He also used British newspapers to further his claim.[217] After examining the case, the British found in favour of Ranjitsinhji in December 1906, although the decision was not made public until the following February. Simon Wilde points out that the decision explicitly contradicted the evidence provided by the widows and seemingly ignored Vibhaji's abandonment of Ranjitsinhji as heir. Nevertheless, Ranjitsinhji's popularity as a cricketer, his close connections with many of the British administrators and the fact that he was westernised from his time spent in England may all have been major factors in the decision according to Wilde.[218][219] An appeal from Lakhuba, which was eventually unsuccessful, delayed proceedings but Ranjitsinhji was installed as Jam Sahib on 11 March 1907.[220] His full title was Colonel His Highness Shri Sir Ranjitsinhji Vibhaji II, Jam Sahib of Nawanagar, GCSI, GBE.[221] The installation was relatively simple for financial reasons as Nawanagar was poor; many items had to be borrowed from neighbouring states for the ceremony to reach the expected standard. Security was heavy and shortly after the ceremony and in unfamiliar surroundings, Ranjitsinhji secretly adopted a nephew as his heir.[222] Ranjitsinhji faced many challenges upon assuming control of Nawanagar. The state, following a drought several years before, was poor, suffered poverty and disease. In 1907, approximately thirty people were dying from disease each day in the capital city, Jamnagar. When he first saw it, Ranjitsinhji described Jamnagar as "an evil slum". To provide funds, most of the state's jewellery had been sold off.[223] In a speech at Ranjitsinhji's installation, Percy Fitzgerald, the British resident at Rajkot, made clear that the state needed to be modernised; for example, he said that Ranjtisinhji should develop the harbour at Salaya and extend the state's railway, improve irrigation and reform the state's administration.[218] The British also took steps to reduce spending, concerned about his personal financial difficulties.[224] According to Simon Wilde, Ranjitsinhji must have suffered from personal insecurity, moving to a region with which he was unfamiliar; furthermore, it is unlikely that his expectations before he became ruler were matched by the reality.[225] Possibly prompted by his difficulty adjusting, Ranjitsinhji made little progress in his first four months. He made enquiries into improving the collection of his land revenue, began to build a cricket pitch and went on shooting expeditions.[226] Then in August 1907, he became seriously ill with typhoid, although he later claimed he had been poisoned. He recovered well, but his doctor reported to Fitzgerald that Ranjitsinhji needed a year in England to recover. Fitzgerald had misgivings about the level of expenditure involved and was concerned that opponents might plot while the ruler was away, but had to accept the decision.[227] Controversy in EnglandUpon arriving in England, Ranjitsinhji hired a country house at Shillinglee and spent much of his time entertaining guests, hunting and playing cricket. Freed from his previous financial difficulties, he seems to have tried to repay the hospitality he had enjoyed. However, he made no attempt to pay for his expensive lifestyle and ignored requests for payment of bills, mostly from tradesmen, with result he ran up considerable debts.[228] Nevertheless, he came under increasing financial pressure throughout 1908. Mansur Khachar came to England in an attempt to recover his loan, and contacted the India Office. He claimed Ranjitsinhji repeatedly misled him, although he could not provide evidence for all of his statements. Ranjitsinhji denied many of the claims but agreed to repay the initial loan to prevent embarrassment if the story got out. He offered to repay half of the sum, but in the event gave back less than a quarter.[229] Another dispute arose with Mary Tayler, an artist who was commissioned in April 1908 to create a miniature portrait of Ranjitsinhji at an agreed cost of 100 guineas for one and 180 guineas for a pair. Ranjitsinhji became increasingly uncooperative and when the finished work arrived two weeks afterwards, he eventually returned them, stating that he was dissatisfied with the likeness. In response, Tayler issued a writ for 180 guineas.[230] When the case came up at Brighton county court, Ranjitsinhji's solicitor, Edward Hunt, claimed that as a ruling sovereign, English courts had no authority over him.[231] However, the Secretary of State for India, Lord Morley, became involved and Hunt offered to make a settlement. By August, after a delay of seven weeks, Tayler was told that the matter could not be settled as MacLaren, Ranjitsinhji's secretary and a vital witness, was injured. But when Tayler discovered that this was untrue,[i] she wrote to the India Office. She had no proof that a fee was agreed, but in November the India Office decided Ranjitsinhji should pay £75 as a gesture of good faith, and criticised Ranjitsinhji and "his ridiculous private secretary".[232] Ranjitsinhji also came before the courts over an 1896 loan covenant in a dispute between four women and himself and three other people. Ranjitsinhji had his name taken out of the claim on the grounds that he was a ruling sovereign, a view which was supported by the India Office.[233][111] During his visit Ranjitsinhji resumed his first-class cricket career in the 1908 season,[234] and also visited the Borrisow family in Gilling East. At the time, he was contemplating marriage and locals believed he was in love with Edith Borrisow. While he may have pursued the matter, objections from her father and the potential scandal in both British and Rajput circles at a mixed-race marriage prevented anything coming of it.[235] In August 1908, Ranjitsinhji became involved in fund raising to restore the bell-tower of Gilling East parish church and to furnish it with a clock; he organised a cricket match involving famous cricketers playing against a local team and raised money through the sale of a photograph.[236] By the end of the season, Ranjitsinhji was under pressure. At a farewell dinner to celebrate his cricket feats, some notable figures from cricket and the India Office were absent. Rumours spread over his financial unreliability and stories appeared in the press that he was considering abdication.[237] He felt betrayed by the government and criticised it in a speech at the dinner, and he felt unfairly blamed for the financial controversy.[238] However, Horatio Bottomley, a Liberal MP began to publicly criticise Ranjitsinhji in his magazine John Bull in October and November, drawing attention to his debts, the court cases and the claim that he was exempt from the law. Concerned and embarrassed by the negative publicity, the India Office advised Ranjitsinhji to be more careful with money.[239] Ranjitsinhji wrote back that he was "very hurt and annoyed at being continually thought ill of",[240] and also defended himself in a letter to the Times. In December 1908, he returned to India although two months remained on his lease at Shillinglee.[241] First years as rulerRanjitsinhji returned from England to find that many of his staff had left and several assassination plans had been uncovered. Rumours spread that he was about to abdicate.[242] Despite the help of British officials, he made several controversial decisions, accumulated expensive possessions and attempted to increase his income. He tried to reclaim land given away by previous rulers and although he reduced revenue taxation, he imposed an additional land rent which, coupled with severe drought, led to rebellion in some villages; Ranjitsinhji ordered his army to destroy them in retribution.[243] The new resident at Rajkot, Claude Hill, was concerned by Ranjitsinhji's actions early in 1909 and met him April 1909 to discuss his role and responsibilities.[244] Meanwhile, in England Lord Edward Winterton, to whom Ranjitsinhji owed money from his lease of the Shillinglee Park property, asked questions in the House of Commons regarding Ranjitsinhji's debts, visits to England and his actions as ruler of Nawanagar.[245] As his state required his presence, the British advised him to leave at least four years between his visits to England. He did so at the earliest opportunity in 1912.[246] Ranjitsinhji resumed first-class cricket in 1912 but also had to face his many debts in England; his solicitor, Hunt, was questioned by the India Office, although Hunt reassured the officials that Ranjitsinhji's debts were in hand. Lord Winterton once again asked questions in the House of Commons, this time about money Ranjitsinhji owed to the Coupe Company for architectural designs. Ranjitsinhji appeared himself at the India Office to answer questions on this particular debt and eventually paid back £500 of the £900 he owed.[247] After spending time with Edith in Gilling, Ranjitsinhji returned to India in January 1913, pursued once more by rumours of impending marriage.[248][249] Although Ranjitsinhji continued to state his intention to marry, and plans for a wedding were fairly developed, he never married. However, it is possible that Edith Borrisow stayed regularly at the palace.[j][250] War service and loss of eyeWhen the First World War began in August 1914, Ranjitsinhji declared that the resources of his state were available to Britain, including a house that he owned at Staines which was converted into a hospital. In November 1914, he left to serve at the Western Front, leaving Berthon as administrator.[k] Ranjitsinhji was made an honorary major in the British Army, but as any serving Indian princes were not allowed near the fighting by the British because of the risk involved, he did not see active service. Ranjitsinhji went to France but the cold weather badly affected his health and he returned to England several times.[252] On 31 August 1915, he took part in a grouse shooting party on the Yorkshire Moors near Langdale End. While on foot, he was accidentally shot in the right eye by another member of the party. After travelling to Leeds via the railway at Scarborough, a specialist removed the badly damaged eye on 2 August. Ranjitsinhji's presence on a grouse shoot was a source of embarrassment to the authorities, who attempted to justify his presence in the area by hinting at his involvement in military business. He spent two months recuperating in Scarborough and after attending the funeral of W. G. Grace in Kent, he went to India for his sister's marriage and did not return to England before the end of the war.[253] When Ranjitsinhji returned to India in 1915, Edith Borrisow remained in England. Her father died in 1917 and she and her sister moved away from Gilling, eventually settling in Staines (where Ranjitsinhji had a house).[254] According to cricket writer E. H. D. Sewell, to whom Ranjitsinhji told the story, Ranjitsinhji asked Edith to marry him following her father's death. However, she refused as she had fallen in love with someone else, and the engagement ended after 18 years. Sewell also claimed that her father had come to approve of the proposed marriage. However, the story may not be reliable and Simon Wilde speculates that Borrisow had simply tired of waiting and broke off the engagement. It is likely the pair remained friends, but Ranjitsinhji was deeply affected by the end of the relationship.[255] Final yearsImprovements in Nawanagar Nephews of Ranjitsinhji in 1932. Left-right: K.S. Samarsinhji, K.S. Indravijaysinhi, K.S. Ranvirsinhji and K.S. Jayendrasinhji. The first three are brothers. All four took up cricket following their uncle.While Ranjitsinhji was in Europe at the start of the war, Berthon remained in Nawanagar as Administrator and began to implement modernisation programmes. He organised the clearance of slums in Jamnagar and new houses, shops and roads were built. Berthon's improvements in irrigation meant that dry weather in 1923 was inconvenient but not disastrous like previous droughts. He also improved the state's finances to the extent that the railway was finally extended as the British resident had suggested in 1907.[256] Berthon continued in his role as Ranjitsinhji recovered from his injury, and the British Government wished him to remain in the position even when Ranjitsinhji was fully fit. Ranjitsinhji disagreed and threatened to abdicate if he was forced to retain Berthon. As a compromise, Berthon remained in Nawanagar but in an ostensibly more lowly position; in return, Ranjitsinhji was given more outward displays of favour, including the upgrading of Nawanagar to a 13-gun salute state and the centre of its liaison with the British was transferred from the Government of Bombay to the Government of India. Furthermore, Ranjitsinhji personally was entitled to a 15-gun salute[l] and officially granted the title of Maharaja.[131] Berthon retired in 1920 but remained close to Ranjitsinhji for many years.[246] Nawanagar's finances were improved further by the construction of a port at Bedi. Encouraged by the British, the port was successful and thanks to favourable costs and charges it was used by many traders. As a consequence, Nawanagar's revenue more than doubled between 1916 and 1925.[260] Ranjitsinhji was therefore able to live in luxury. He acquired many properties in India, and while retaining his property in Staines in England, bought a castle in Ballynahinch on the west coast of Ireland. From 1920, he once more visited England but could now do so regularly and subsequently split his time each year between India and the British Isles.[261] However, according to journalist Simon Wilde, Ranjitsinhji was never happy. Possibly, he felt more at home in England and in the company of his British friends, and never felt a connection with Nawanagar.[262] He was criticised for his failure to support Indian cricket, and his nephew Duleepsinhji later represented England in Test matches.[263] Furthermore, his relations with British officials in India deteriorated over his final years, descending into disputes over minor matters, such as the refusal of the Bombay Gymkhana to give him membership.[264] Although Ranjitsinhji had no children, he was very close to his nephews and nieces; they lived in his palaces and he sent them to Britain to study. He encouraged his nephews to take up cricket, and several of them had minor success in school cricket. The most effective was Duleepsinhji; critics spotted a similarity to Ranjitsinhji in his style, and he had a successful county and Test career until he was forced to give up the game through illness in 1932. However, he felt pressured by Ranjitsinhji and said that he only played to keep Ranjitsinhji happy.[265][266] Opposition to Federation and deathFor much of the remainder of his life, Ranjitsinhji devoted his time to supporting the interests of the Indian Princes. He attempted to unite his fellow princes against the advance of democracy, the Independence Movement and the growing hostility of the Indian National Congress. He was instrumental in the formation of the Chamber of Princes.[267] Ranjitsinhji also secured a place on the Indian delegation to the League of Nations between 1920 and 1923, although he was a late replacement in 1922 and a substitute delegate in 1923. Providing extravagant hospitality to other delegates, Ranjitsinhji's delegation was popular and, according to Simon Wilde, "managed to acquire influence beyond its real status in Geneva".[268] Ranjitsinhji was assisted by his old friend and teammate C. B. Fry, who wrote his speeches. One such speech in 1923, made on behalf of the British Empire, was partly responsible for the withdrawal of the Italians from Corfu, which they had occupied. He also made a controversial speech in 1922 against the limits placed on the immigration of Indians into South Africa.[269] In 1927, Ranjitsinhji came under attack from the All India States Peoples Conference which accused him, among other things, of being an absentee ruler, high taxes and restricting liberties. He responded through supporting published works by different authors, including Jamnagar and its Ruler in 1927, Nawanagar and its Critics in 1929 and The Land of Ranji and Duleep in 1931. Although not entirely accurate, they attempted to answer some of the criticisms.[270] Ranjitsinhji visited England in 1930, to take part in talks on India's constitution. While there, he was well received by former cricketers and saw Duleepsinhji score 174 against Australia in a Test match at Lord's. At the request of Sussex, he was president of the county for the year.[271] He continued to oppose Indian federation, despite support for the idea from the British and some of the princes. He was chancellor to the Chamber of Princes in 1933, shortly before he died.[272] Ranjitsinhji died of heart failure on 2 April 1933 after a short illness. McLeod recounts that "many" contemporary observers attributed Ranjitsinhji's death to an angry comment made publicly by Lord Willingdon, the Viceroy of India in the Chamber of Princes.[273] Ranjitsinhji had felt that he was speaking in defence of British interests and, The Morning Post said, "Feeling himself rebuked by the Power he wished to save, ... he lost all desire to live".[274] Whether or not the dispute was the catalyst for his final illness, Ranjitsinhji's health had gradually deteriorated in his final years. He was cremated and his ashes were scattered over the River Ganges.[275][276][277] His estate in England was worth £185,958 at his death (£13,610,242 in 2020 terms).[275] Legacy Ranjitsinhji on a 1973 stamp of IndiaBateman's work on cricket and the British Empire identifies Ranjitsinhji as an important figure in helping build "imperial cohesion", adding that his "cultural impact was immense".[278] Bateman identifies in particular the use of Ranjitsinhji's image during his era in advertising in England and Australia.[205] This was a marked turnaround from the racism Ranjitsinhji had faced early in his career, which he had tried to overcome with techniques such as adopting the pseudonym, "Smith".[279] The popularity of an Indian playing cricket in England and for England was remarked upon during Ranjitsinhji's era. W. G. Grace directly linked Ranjitsinhji's celebrity to "his extraordinary skill as a batsman and his nationality".[205] After his death, the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) started the Ranji Trophy in 1934, with the first fixtures taking place in 1934–35.[280] The trophy was donated by Maharaja Bhupinder Singh of Patiala, who also inaugurated the competition. The Ranji Trophy is India's national championship in first-class cricket and is contested by 38 teams representing several cities and states.[281] As a ruler, his legacy is more patchy. McLeod summarises his achievements at home as having "remodelled his capital, constructed roads and railways, and built a great port with modern facilities".[282] Due to his legacy on the cricket field, he is regarded as one of the best cricketers of Indian history. He is also regarded as being one of the finest batsmen to have played for the Sussex County Cricket Club.[283] Nawanagar was an Indian princely state in the historical Halar region, located on the southern shores of the Gulf of Kutch. It was ruled by the Jadeja Rajput dynasty and became a part of newly formed India. Its capital city was Nawanagar city, now known as Jamnagar. It had an area of 3,791 square miles (9,820 km2) and a population estimated at 336,779 in 1901. Its rulers, who use the title of "Jam Saheb" are of the same clan as the Rao of Kutch.[1] They were entitled to a 13-gun salute. The state flag was a rectangular red flag with a white elephant, near and facing the hoist. During the British, the state was part of the Kathiawar Agency, within the Gujarat Division of Bombay Presidency.[1][2] The state had a pearl fishery and much of its wealth came from this. Nawanagar is also famous for its late ruler Jam Saheb Ranjitsinhji (died 1933), who was a famous cricket player at Cambridge in England and represented England in Test cricket, before his accession to the throne. History Picture of Ranjitsinhji, celebrated cricketer and Maharaja of Nawanagar.Nawanagar was founded in 1540 by Jam Sri Rawalji, a descendant of the Jadeja ruler of Kutch, and was thereafter in an almost constant state of war with its neighbours and with the Mughal Empire. Two such major wars were the Battle of Mithoi and Battle of Bhuchar Mori fought in 1591. The "Walker Treaty of 1807" brought peace to the Kathiawar states for the first time in several generations. Nawanagar came under British protection on 22 February 1812. K. S. Ranjitsinhji was one of the world's greatest cricket players and, later, became Jam Saheb in 1907 until 1933.[3] The inclusive circle of eight players promoted excellence in cricket, both in the county and domestic games. After his death, Ranji Trophy, a domestic first-class cricket championship played in India between different city and state sides, was started in 1934 by Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI). Jam Saheb Shri Sir Ranjitsinhji remained the chancellor of the Chamber of Princes (1931–1933). After his death, in 1933, he was succeeded by his nephew Jam Saheb Shri Sir Digvijaysinhji, who became its chancellor (1937–1944) and continued to promote the octet circle in excellence in cricket, academics and welfare. In 1942 the Maharaja set up a refugee camp for Polish children in Balachadi. Nawanagar was one of the first princely states to sign the Instrument of Accession in 1948 after Indian independence. Afterwards, the late ruler, Digvijaysinhji, served as the first Rajpramukh of Kathiawad, then represented his country at the United Nations. In 1949, the princely states of Nawanagar and Dhrol, Jalia Dewani in Kathiawar merged into the new state of Saurashtra. On 19 June 1959, the boundaries of the district were enlarged by the inclusion of the adjoining Okhamandal, and the district was renamed Jamnagar. This district became part of the new state of Gujarat on the division of the State of Bombay on 1 May 1960. Rulers (Jam Saheb)RegimeRulersBornDied1540 – 1562Rawalji Lakhaji148015621562 – 1569Vibhaji Rawalji15691569 – 1608Sataji Vibhaji16081608 – 1624Jasaji Sataji16241624 – 1645Lakhaji Ajaji16451645 – 1661Ranmalji Lakhaji16611661 – 1664Raisinhji Lakhaji1664 – 1673Interregnum1673 – 1690Tamachi Rainsinhji2 October 1690 – 13 October 1708Lakhaji Tamachi170813 October 1708 – 13 August 1711Raisinhji Lakhaji171113 August 1711 – 1743Tamachi Raisinhji1743September 1743 - 2 November 1767Lakhaji Tamachi174317672 November 1767 – 6 August 1814Jasaji Lakhaji18146 August 1814 – 24 February 1820Sataji II Lakhaji182024 February 1820 – 22 February 1852Ranmalji Sataji II185222 February 1852 – 28 April 1895Vibhaji II Ranmalji1827189528 April 1895 – 14 August 1906Jashwantsinhji Vibhaji II1882190612 March 1907 – 2 April 1933Ranjitsinhji Vibhaji II187219332 April 1933 – 15 August 1947Digvijaysinhji Ranjitsinhji189519663 February 1966 – PresentShatrushalyasinhji Digvijaysinhji1939livingJewellery collectionThe Maharaja Jamsaheb of Nawanagar were also known for their jewellery collection; especially Ranjithsinhji, whose Emerald collection according to Jacques Cartier was "unequaled in the world, if not in quantity, then certainly in quality". The collection included an emerald and pearl necklace, an art deco emerald and diamond necklace designed by Jacques Cartier and an Emerald collar or choker also designed by Jacques Cartier.[4][5] The 61.5 carat (12.3 g) whisky-coloured diamond, "The Eye of the Tiger", was mounted by Cartier in a turban aigrette for the JMaharaja or Maharaja of Nawanagar in 1934.[6] See alsoNawanagar cricket teamPolitical integration of IndiaWestern India States AgencyJam SahibJamnagar & Dwarka RailwayCricket is a bat-and-ball game that is played between two teams of eleven players on a field, at the centre of which is a 22-yard (20-metre) pitch with a wicket at each end, each comprising two bails balanced on three stumps. Two players from the batting team (the striker and nonstriker) stand in front of either wicket holding bats, with one player from the fielding team (the bowler) bowling the ball towards the striker's wicket from the opposite end of the pitch. The striker's goal is to hit the bowled ball with the bat and then switch places with the nonstriker, with the batting team scoring one run for each exchange. Runs are also scored when the ball reaches or crosses the boundary of the field or when the ball is bowled illegally. The fielding team tries to prevent runs from being scored by dismissing batters (so they are "out"). Means of dismissal include being bowled, when the ball hits the striker's wicket and dislodges the bails, and by the fielding side either catching the ball after it is hit by the bat but before it hits the ground or hitting a wicket with the ball before a batter can cross the crease in front of the wicket. When ten batters have been dismissed, the innings ends and the teams swap roles. Forms of cricket range from Twenty20 (also known as T20), with each team batting for a single innings of 20 overs (each "over" being a set of 6 fair opportunities for the batting team to score) and the game generally lasting three to four hours, to Test matches played over five days. Traditionally, cricketers play in all-white kit, but in limited overs cricket, they wear club or team colours. In addition to the basic kit, some players wear protective gear to prevent injury caused by the ball, which is a hard, solid spheroid made of compressed leather with a slightly raised sewn seam enclosing a cork core layered with tightly wound string. The earliest known definite reference to cricket is to it being played in South East England in the mid-16th century. It spread globally with the expansion of the British Empire, with the first international matches in the second half of the 19th century. The game's governing body is the International Cricket Council (ICC), which has over 100 members, twelve of which are full members who play Test matches. The game's rules, the Laws of Cricket, are maintained by Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in London. The sport is followed primarily in South Asia, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Southern Africa, and the West Indies.[1] Women's cricket, which is organised and played separately, has also achieved international standard. The most successful side playing international cricket is Australia, which has won eight One Day International trophies, including six World Cups, more than any other country, and has been the top-rated Test side more than any other country.[citation needed] HistoryMain article: History of cricketOriginsMain article: History of cricket to 1725 A medieval "club ball" game involving an underarm bowl towards a batter. Ball catchers are shown positioning themselves to catch a ball. Detail from the Canticles of Holy Mary, 13th century.Cricket is one of many games in the "club ball" sphere that involve hitting a ball with a hand-held implement. Others include baseball (which shares many similarities with cricket, both belonging in the more specific bat-and-ball games category[2]), golf, hockey, tennis, squash, badminton and table tennis.[3] In cricket's case, a key difference is the existence of a solid target structure, the wicket (originally, it is thought, a "wicket gate" through which sheep were herded), that the batter must defend.[4] The cricket historian Harry Altham identified three "groups" of "club ball" games: the "hockey group", in which the ball is driven to and from between two targets (the goals); the "golf group", in which the ball is driven towards an undefended target (the hole); and the "cricket group", in which "the ball is aimed at a mark (the wicket) and driven away from it".[5] It is generally believed that cricket originated as a children's game in the south-eastern counties of England, sometime during the medieval period.[4] Although there are claims for prior dates, the earliest definite reference to cricket being played comes from evidence given at a court case in Guildford in January 1597 (Old Style, equating to January 1598 in the modern calendar). The case concerned ownership of a certain plot of land, and the court heard the testimony of a 59-year-old coroner, John Derrick, who gave witness that:[6][7][8] Being a scholler in the ffree schoole of Guldeford hee and diverse of his fellows did runne and play there at creckett and other plaies. Given Derrick's age, it was about half a century earlier when he was at school, and so it is certain that cricket was being played c. 1550 by boys in Surrey.[8] The view that it was originally a children's game is reinforced by Randle Cotgrave's 1611 English-French dictionary in which he defined the noun "crosse" as "the crooked staff wherewith boys play at cricket", and the verb form "crosser" as "to play at cricket".[9][10] One possible source for the sport's name is the Old English word "cryce" (or "cricc") meaning a crutch or staff. In Samuel Johnson's Dictionary, he derived cricket from "cryce, Saxon, a stick".[6] In Old French, the word "criquet" seems to have meant a kind of club or stick.[11] Given the strong medieval trade connections between south-east England and the County of Flanders when the latter belonged to the Duchy of Burgundy, the name may have been derived from the Middle Dutch (in use in Flanders at the time) "krick"(-e), meaning a stick (crook).[11] Another possible source is the Middle Dutch word "krickstoel", meaning a long low stool used for kneeling in church that resembled the long low wicket with two stumps used in early cricket.[12] According to Heiner Gillmeister, a European language expert of Bonn University, "cricket" derives from the Middle Dutch phrase for hockey, "met de (krik ket)sen" ("with the stick chase").[13] Gillmeister has suggested that not only the name but also the sport itself may be of Flemish origin.[13] Growth of amateur and professional cricket in England Evolution of the cricket bat. The original "hockey stick" (left) evolved into the straight bat from c. 1760, when pitched delivery bowling began.Although the main object of the game has always been to score the most runs, the early form of cricket differed from the modern game in certain key technical aspects; the North American variant of cricket known as wicket retained many of these aspects.[14] The ball was bowled underarm by the bowler and along the ground towards a batter armed with a bat that in shape resembled a hockey stick; the batter defended a low, two-stump wicket; and runs were called notches because the scorers recorded them by notching tally sticks.[15][16][17] In 1611, the year Cotgrave's dictionary was published, ecclesiastical court records at Sidlesham in Sussex state that two parishioners, Bartholomew Wyatt and Richard Latter, failed to attend church on Easter Sunday because they were playing cricket. They were fined 12d each and ordered to do penance.[18] This is the earliest mention of adult participation in cricket and it was around the same time that the earliest known organised inter-parish or village match was played, at Chevening, Kent.[6][19] In 1624, a player called Jasper Vinall died after he was accidentally struck on the head during a match between two parish teams in Sussex.[20] Cricket remained a low-key local pursuit for much of the 17th century.[10] It is known, through numerous references found in the records of ecclesiastical court cases, to have been proscribed at times by the Puritans before and during the Commonwealth.[21][22] The problem was nearly always the issue of Sunday play, as the Puritans considered cricket to be "profane" if played on the Sabbath, especially if large crowds or gambling were involved.[23][24] According to the social historian Derek Birley, there was a "great upsurge of sport after the Restoration" in 1660.[25] Several members of the court of King Charles II took a strong interest in cricket during that era.[26] Gambling on sport became a problem significant enough for Parliament to pass the 1664 Gambling Act, limiting stakes to £100, which was, in any case, a colossal sum exceeding the annual income of 99% of the population.[25] Along with horse racing, as well as prizefighting and other types of blood sport, cricket was perceived to be a gambling sport.[27] Rich patrons made matches for high stakes, forming teams in which they engaged the first professional players.[28] By the end of the century, cricket had developed into a major sport that was spreading throughout England and was already being taken abroad by English mariners and colonisers—the earliest reference to cricket overseas is dated 1676.[29] A 1697 newspaper report survives of "a great cricket match" played in Sussex "for fifty guineas apiece", the earliest known contest that is generally considered a First Class match.[30][31] The patrons and other players from the gentry began to classify themselves as "amateurs"[fn 1] to establish a clear distinction from the professionals, who were invariably members of the working class, even to the point of having separate changing and dining facilities.[32] The gentry, including such high-ranking nobles as the Dukes of Richmond, exerted their honour code of noblesse oblige to claim rights of leadership in any sporting contests they took part in, especially as it was necessary for them to play alongside their "social inferiors" if they were to win their bets.[33] In time, a perception took hold that the typical amateur who played in first-class cricket, until 1962 when amateurism was abolished, was someone with a public school education who had then gone to one of Cambridge or Oxford University. Society insisted that such people were "officers and gentlemen" whose destiny was to provide leadership.[34] In a purely financial sense, the cricketing amateur would theoretically claim expenses for playing while his professional counterpart played under contract and was paid a wage or match fee; in practice, many amateurs claimed more than actual expenditure, and the derisive term "shamateur" was coined to describe the practice.[35][36] English cricket in the 18th and 19th centuries Francis Cotes, The Young Cricketer, 1768The game underwent major development in the 18th century to become England's national sport.[37] Its success was underwritten by the twin necessities of patronage and betting.[38] Cricket was prominent in London as early as 1707 and, in the middle years of the century, large crowds flocked to matches on the Artillery Ground in Finsbury.[citation needed] The single wicket form of the sport attracted huge crowds and wagers to match, its popularity peaking in the 1748 season.[39] Bowling underwent an evolution around 1760 when bowlers began to pitch the ball instead of rolling or skimming it towards the batter. This caused a revolution in bat design because, to deal with the bouncing ball, it was necessary to introduce the modern straight bat in place of the old "hockey stick" shape.[40][citation needed] The Hambledon Club was founded in the 1760s and, for the next twenty years until the formation of Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) and the opening of Lord's Old Ground in 1787, Hambledon was both the game's greatest club and its focal point.[citation needed] MCC quickly became the sport's premier club and the custodian of the Laws of Cricket. New Laws introduced in the latter part of the 18th century include the three-stump wicket and leg before wicket (lbw).[41] The 19th century saw underarm bowling superseded by first roundarm and then overarm bowling. Both developments were controversial.[42] Organisation of the game at county level led to the creation of the county clubs, starting with Sussex in 1839.[43] In December 1889, the eight leading county clubs formed the official County Championship, which began in 1890.[44] The first recorded photo of a cricket match taken on 25 July 1857 by Roger FentonThe most famous player of the 19th century was W. G. Grace, who started his long and influential career in 1865. It was especially during the career of Grace that the distinction between amateurs and professionals became blurred by the existence of players like him who were nominally amateur but, in terms of their financial gain, de facto professional. Grace himself was said to have been paid more money for playing cricket than any professional.[citation needed] The last two decades before the First World War have been called the "Golden Age of cricket". It is a nostalgic name prompted by the collective sense of loss resulting from the war, but the period did produce some great players and memorable matches, especially as organised competition at county and Test level developed.[45] Cricket becomes an international sport The first English team to tour overseas, on board ship to North America, 1859In 1844, the first-ever international match took place between what were essentially club teams, from the United States and Canada, in Toronto; Canada won.[46][47] In 1859, a team of English players went to North America on the first overseas tour.[48] Meanwhile, the British Empire had been instrumental in spreading the game overseas, and by the middle of the 19th century it had become well established in Australia, the Caribbean, British India (which includes present-day Pakistan and Bangladesh), New Zealand, North America and South Africa.[49] In 1862, an English team made the first tour of Australia.[50] The first Australian team to travel overseas consisted of Aboriginal stockmen who toured England in 1868.[51] In 1876–77, an England team took part in what was retrospectively recognized as the first-ever Test match at the Melbourne Cricket Ground against Australia.[52] The rivalry between England and Australia gave birth to The Ashes in 1882, which remains Test cricket's most famous contest.[53] Test cricket began to expand in 1888–89 when South Africa played England.[54] Cricket in the 20th century Don Bradman of Australia had a record Test batting average of 99.94.The inter-war years were dominated by Australia's Don Bradman, statistically the greatest Test batter of all time. To curb his dominance, England employed bodyline tactics during the 1932–33 Ashes series. These involved bowling at the body of the batter and setting a field, resulting in batters having to choose between being hit or risk getting out. This series moved cricket from a game to a matter of national importance, with diplomatic cables being passed between the two countries over the incident.[55] During this time, the number of Test nations continued to grow, with the West Indies, New Zealand and India being admitted as full Test members within a four-year period from 1928 to 1932. An enforced break during the Second World War stopped Test Cricket for a time, although the Partition of India caused Pakistan to gain Test status in 1952. As teams began to travel more, the game quickly grew from 500 tests in 84 years to 1000 within the next 23. Cricket entered a new era in 1963 when English counties introduced the limited overs variant.[56] As it was sure to produce a result, limited overs cricket was lucrative, and the number of matches increased.[57] The first Limited Overs International was played in 1971, and the governing International Cricket Council (ICC), seeing its potential, staged the first limited overs Cricket World Cup in 1975.[58] In the 21st century, a new limited overs form, Twenty20, made an immediate impact.[citation needed] Sri Lanka joined the ranks in 1982. Meanwhile, South Africa was banned by the ICC due to apartheid from 1970 until 1992. 1992 also brought about the introduction of the Zimbabwe team.[59] Cricket in the 21st centuryThe 21st century brought with it the Bangladesh Team, who made their debut in 2000. The game itself also grew, with a new format made up of 20 over innings being created. This format, called T20 Cricket, quickly became a highly popular format, putting One Day Cricket at risk. The new shorter format also introduced franchise cricket, with new tournaments like the Indian Premier League and the Australian Big Bash League. Outside factors have also taken their toll on cricket. For example, the 2008 Mumbai attacks led India and Pakistan to suspend their bilateral series indefinitely. The 2009 attack on the Sri Lankan team during their tour of Pakistan led to Pakistan being unable to host matches until 2019.[60][61][62][63] In 2017, Afghanistan and Ireland became the 11th and 12th Test nations.[64][65] Laws and gameplayMain article: Laws of Cricket A typical cricket fieldIn cricket, the rules of the game are codified in The Laws of Cricket (hereinafter called "the Laws"), which has a global remit. There are 42 Laws (always written with a capital "L"). The earliest known version of the code was drafted in 1744, and since 1788, it has been owned and maintained by its custodian, the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in London.[66] Playing areaMain articles: Cricket field, Cricket pitch, Crease (cricket), and WicketCricket is a bat-and-ball game played on a cricket field (see image of cricket pitch and creases) between two teams of eleven players each.[67] The field is usually circular or oval in shape, and the edge of the playing area is marked by a boundary, which may be a fence, part of the stands, a rope, a painted line, or a combination of these; the boundary must if possible be marked along its entire length.[68] In the approximate centre of the field is a rectangular pitch (see image, below) on which a wooden target called a wicket is sited at each end; the wickets are placed 22 yards (20 m) apart.[69] The pitch is a flat surface 10 feet (3.0 m) wide, with very short grass that tends to be worn away as the game progresses (cricket can also be played on artificial surfaces, notably matting). Each wicket is made of three wooden stumps topped by two bails.[70] Cricket pitch and creasesAs illustrated, the pitch is marked at each end with four white painted lines: a bowling crease, a popping crease and two return creases. The three stumps are aligned centrally on the bowling crease, which is eight feet eight inches long. The popping crease is drawn four feet in front of the bowling crease and parallel to it; although it is drawn as a twelve-foot line (six feet on either side of the wicket), it is, in fact, unlimited in length. The return creases are drawn at right angles to the popping crease so that they intersect the ends of the bowling crease; each return crease is drawn as an eight-foot line, so that it extends four feet behind the bowling crease, but is also, in fact, unlimited in length.[71] Match structure and closureMain articles: Innings and Result (cricket) A modern SG cricket bat (back view)Before a match begins, the team captains (who are also players) toss a coin to decide which team will bat first and so take the first innings.[72] "Innings" is the term used for each phase of play in the match.[72] In each innings, one team bats, attempting to score runs, while the other team bowls and fields the ball, attempting to restrict the scoring and dismiss the batters.[73][74] When the first innings ends, the teams change roles; there can be two to four innings depending upon the type of match. A match with four scheduled innings is played over three to five days; a match with two scheduled innings is usually completed in a single day.[72] During an innings, all eleven members of the fielding team take the field, but usually only two members of the batting team are on the field at any given time. The exception to this is if a batter has any type of illness or injury restricting their ability to run; in this case, the batter is allowed a runner who can run between the wickets when the batter hits a scoring run or runs,[75] though this does not apply in international cricket.[76] The order of batters is usually announced just before the match, but it can be varied.[67] The main objective of each team is to score more runs than their opponents, but in some forms of cricket, it is also necessary to dismiss all but one of the opposition batters in their final innings in order to win the match, which would otherwise be drawn.[77] If the team batting last is all out having scored fewer runs than their opponents, they are said to have "lost by n runs" (where n is the difference between the aggregate number of runs scored by the teams). If the team that bats last scores enough runs to win, it is said to have "won by n wickets", where n is the number of wickets left to fall. For example, a team that passes its opponents' total having lost six wickets (i.e., six of their batters have been dismissed) win the match "by four wickets".[77] In a two-innings-a-side match, one team's combined first and second innings total may be less than the other side's first innings total. The team with the greater score is then said to have "won by an innings and n runs" and does not need to bat again: n is the difference between the two teams' aggregate scores. If the team batting last is all out and both sides have scored the same number of runs, then the match is a tie; this result is quite rare in matches of two innings a side with only 62 happening in first-class matches from the earliest known instance in 1741 until January 2017. In the traditional form of the game, if the time allotted for the match expires before either side can win, then the game is declared a draw.[77] If the match has only a single innings per side, then usually a maximum number of overs applies to each innings. Such a match is called a "limited overs" or "one-day" match, and the side scoring more runs wins regardless of the number of wickets lost, so that a draw cannot occur. In some cases, ties are broken by having each team bat for a one-over innings known as a Super Over; subsequent Super Overs may be played if the first Super Over ends in a tie. If this kind of match is temporarily interrupted by bad weather, then a complex mathematical formula, known as the Duckworth–Lewis–Stern method after its developers, is often used to recalculate a new target score. A one-day match can also be declared a "no-result" if fewer than a previously agreed number of overs have been bowled by either team, in circumstances that make normal resumption of play impossible, for example, wet weather.[77] In all forms of cricket, the umpires can abandon the match if bad light or rain makes it impossible to continue.[78] There have been instances of entire matches, even Test matches scheduled to be played over five days, being lost to bad weather without a ball being bowled, for example, the third Test of the 1970/71 series in Australia.[79] InningsMain article: InningsThe innings (ending with 's' in both singular and plural form) is the term used for each phase of play during a match. Depending on the type of match being played, each team has either one or two innings. Sometimes all eleven members of the batting side take a turn to bat but, for various reasons, an innings can end before they have all done so. The innings terminates if the batting team is "all out", a term defined by the Laws: "At the fall of a wicket or the retirement of a batter, further balls remain to be bowled but no further batter is available to come in".[72] In this situation, one of the batters has not been dismissed and is termed not out; this is because he has no partners left and there must always be two active batters while the innings is in progress. An innings may end early while there are still two not out batters:[72] the batting team's captain may declare the innings closed, even though some of the captain's players have not had a turn to bat: this is a tactical decision by the captain, usually because the captain believes that their team have scored sufficient runs and need time to dismiss the opposition in their inningsthe set number of overs (i.e., in a limited overs match) have been bowledthe match has ended prematurely due to bad weather or running out of timein the final innings of the match, the batting side has reached its target and won the game.OversMain article: Over (cricket)The Laws state that, throughout an innings, "the ball shall be bowled from each end alternately in overs of 6 balls".[80] The name "over" came about because the umpire calls "Over!" when six balls have been bowled. At this point, another bowler is deployed at the other end, and the fielding side changes ends while the batters do not. A bowler cannot bowl two successive overs, although a bowler can (and usually does) bowl alternate overs, from the same end, for several overs which are termed a "spell". The batters do not change ends at the end of the over, and so the one who was non-striker is now the striker and vice versa. The umpires also change positions so that the one who was at "square leg" now stands behind the wicket at the nonstriker's end and vice versa.[80] Clothing and equipmentMain article: Cricket clothing and equipment English cricketer W. G. Grace "taking guard" in 1883. His pads and bat are very similar to those used today. The gloves have evolved somewhat. Many modern players use more defensive equipment than were available to Grace, most notably helmets and arm guards.The wicket-keeper (a specialised fielder behind the batter) and the batters wear protective gear because of the hardness of the ball, which can be delivered at speeds of more than 145 kilometres per hour (90 mph) and presents a major health and safety concern. Protective clothing includes pads (designed to protect the knees and shins), batting gloves or wicket-keeper's gloves for the hands, a safety helmet for the head, and a box for male players inside the trousers (to protect the crotch area).[81] Some batters wear additional padding inside their shirts and trousers such as thigh pads, arm pads, rib protectors and shoulder pads. The only fielders allowed to wear protective gear are those in positions very close to the batter (i.e., if they are alongside or in front of him), but they cannot wear gloves or external leg guards.[82] Subject to certain variations, on-field clothing generally includes a collared shirt with short or long sleeves; long trousers; woolen pullover (if needed); cricket cap (for fielding) or a safety helmet; and spiked shoes or boots to increase traction. The kit is traditionally all white, and this remains the case in Test and first-class cricket, but in limited overs cricket, team colours are now worn instead.[83] Bat and ballMain articles: Cricket bat and Cricket ballUsed white ballUsed red ballTwo types of cricket ball, both of the same size:i) A used white ball. White balls are mainly used in limited overs cricket, especially in matches played at night, under floodlights (left).ii) A used red ball. Red balls are used in Test cricket, first-class cricket and some other forms of cricket (right).The essence of the sport is that a bowler delivers (i.e., bowls) the ball from their end of the pitch towards the batter who, armed with a bat, is "on strike" at the other end (see next sub-section: Basic gameplay). The bat is made of wood, usually Salix alba (white willow), and has the shape of a blade topped by a cylindrical handle. The blade must not be more than 4.25 inches (10.8 cm) wide and the total length of the bat not more than 38 inches (97 cm). There is no standard for the weight, which is usually between 2 lb 7 oz and 3 lb (1.1 and 1.4 kg).[84][85] The ball is a hard leather-seamed spheroid, with a circumference of 9 inches (23 cm). The ball has a "seam": six rows of stitches attaching the leather shell of the ball to the string and cork interior. The seam on a new ball is prominent and helps the bowler propel it in a less predictable manner. During matches, the quality of the ball deteriorates to a point where it is no longer usable; during the course of this deterioration, its behaviour in flight will change and can influence the outcome of the match. Players will, therefore, attempt to modify the ball's behaviour by modifying its physical properties. Polishing the ball and wetting it with sweat or saliva was legal, even when the polishing was deliberately done on one side only to increase the ball's swing through the air. The use of saliva has since been made illegal due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[86] The acts of rubbing other substances into the ball, scratching the surface or picking at the seams constitute illegal ball tampering.[87] Player rolesBasic gameplay: bowler to batterDuring normal play, thirteen players and two umpires are on the field. Two of the players are batters and the rest are all eleven members of the fielding team. The other nine players in the batting team are off the field in the pavilion. The image with overlay below shows what is happening when a ball is being bowled and which of the personnel are on or close to the pitch.[88] 1234567789101112121Umpire2Wicket3Non-striking batter4Bowler5Ball6Pitch7Popping crease8Striking batter9Wicket10Wicket-keeper11First slip12Return creaseIn the photo, the two batters (3 and 8, wearing yellow) have taken position at each end of the pitch (6). Three members of the fielding team (4, 10 and 11, wearing dark blue) are in shot. One of the two umpires (1, wearing white hat) is stationed behind the wicket (2) at the bowler's (4) end of the pitch. The bowler (4) is bowling the ball (5) from his end of the pitch to the batter (8) at the other end who is called the "striker". The other batter (3) at the bowling end is called the "non-striker". The wicket-keeper (10), who is a specialist, is positioned behind the striker's wicket (9), and behind him stands one of the fielders in a position called "first slip" (11). While the bowler and the first slip are wearing conventional kit only, the two batters and the wicket-keeper are wearing protective gear, including safety helmets, padded gloves and leg guards (pads). While the umpire (1) in shot stands at the bowler's end of the pitch, his colleague stands in the outfield, usually in or near the fielding position called "square leg", so that he is in line with the popping crease (7) at the striker's end of the pitch. The bowling crease (not numbered) is the one on which the wicket is located between the return creases (12). The bowler (4) intends to hit the wicket (9) with the ball (5) or at least prevent the striker (8) from scoring runs. The striker (8) intends, by using his bat, to defend his wicket and, if possible, hit the ball away from the pitch in order to score runs. Some players are skilled in both batting and bowling, or either of these as well as wicket-keeping, so are termed all-rounders. Bowlers are classified according to their style, generally as fast bowlers, seam bowlers or spinners. Batters are classified according to whether they are right-handed or left-handed. FieldingMain article: Fielding (cricket) Fielding positions in cricket for a right-handed batterOf the eleven fielders, three are in shot in the image above. The other eight are elsewhere on the field, their positions determined on a tactical basis by the captain or the bowler. Fielders often change position between deliveries, again as directed by the captain or bowler.[82] If a fielder is injured or becomes ill during a match, a substitute is allowed to field instead of the aforementioned fielder, but the substitute cannot bowl or act as a captain, except in the case of concussion substitutes in international cricket.[76] The substitute leaves the field when the injured player is fit to return.[89] The Laws of Cricket were updated in 2017 to allow substitutes to act as wicket-keepers.[90] Bowling and dismissalMain articles: Bowling (cricket) and Dismissal (cricket) Glenn McGrath of Australia holds the world record for most wickets in the Cricket World Cup.[91]Most bowlers are considered specialists in that they are selected for the team because of their skill as a bowler, although some are all-rounders, and even specialist batters bowl occasionally. These specialists bowl multiple overs during an innings, in groups called "spells" that are generally 4 to 8 overs long in order not to physically exhaust the bowler, cause muscle strain and stress the skeleton. The rules prevent a single bowler from bowling consecutive overs, resulting in at least two bowlers alternating each over. If the captain wants a bowler to "change ends", another bowler must temporarily fill in so that the change is not immediate.[80] A bowler reaches their delivery stride by means of a "run-up", and an over is deemed to have begun when the bowler starts their run-up for the first delivery of that over, the ball then being "in play".[80] Fast bowlers, or pacemen, need momentum, taking a lengthy run up, while bowlers with a slow delivery take no more than a couple of steps before bowling. The fastest bowlers can deliver the ball at a speed of over 145 kilometres per hour (90 mph), and they sometimes rely on sheer speed to try to defeat the batter, who is forced to react very quickly.[92] Other fast bowlers rely on a mixture of speed and guile by making the ball seam or swing (i.e., curve) in flight. This type of delivery can deceive a batter into miscuing their shot, for example, so that the ball just touches the edge of the bat and can then be "caught behind" by the wicket-keeper or a slip fielder.[92] At the other end of the bowling scale is the spin bowler, who bowls at a relatively slow pace and relies entirely on guile to deceive the batter. A spinner will often "buy their wicket" by "tossing one up" (in a slower, steeper parabolic path) to lure the batter into making a poor shot. The batter has to be very wary of such deliveries, as the batter is often "flighted" or spun so that the ball will not behave quite as the batter expects it to, and the batter could be "trapped" into getting themself out. Accidental full toss deliveries can also get wickets, as the failure of the ball to bounce can surprise a batsman or induce a poor stroke in an effort to punish the poor deliver with a boundary hit.[93] In between the pacemen and the spinners are the medium-paced seamers, who rely on persistent accuracy to try to contain the rate of scoring and wear down the batter's concentration.[92] There are nine ways in which a batter can be dismissed: five relatively common and four extremely rare. The common forms of dismissal are bowled,[94] caught,[95] leg before wicket (lbw),[96] run out,[97] and stumped.[98] Rare methods are hit wicket,[99] hit the ball twice,[100] obstructing the field,[101] and timed out.[102] The Laws state that the fielding team, usually the bowler in practice, must appeal for a dismissal before the umpire can give their decision. If the batter is out, the umpire raises a forefinger and says "Out!"; otherwise, the umpire will shake their head and say "Not out".[103] There is, effectively, a tenth method of dismissal, retired out, which is not an on-field dismissal as such but rather a retrospective one for which no fielder is credited.[104] Batting, runs, and extrasMain articles: Batting (cricket), Run (cricket), and Extra (cricket) The directions in which a right-handed batter, facing down the page, intends to send the ball when playing various cricketing shots. The diagram for a left-handed batter is a mirror image of this one.Batters take turns to bat via a batting order which is decided beforehand by the team captain and presented to the umpires, though the order remains flexible when the captain officially nominates the team.[67] Substitute batters are generally not allowed,[89] except in the case of concussion substitutes in international cricket.[76] In order to begin batting the batter first adopts a batting stance. Standardly, this involves adopting a slight crouch with the feet pointing across the front of the wicket, looking in the direction of the bowler, and holding the bat so it passes over the feet and so its tip can rest on the ground near to the toes of the back foot.[105] A skilled batter can use a wide array of "shots" or "strokes" in both defensive and attacking mode. The idea is to hit the ball to the best effect with the flat surface of the bat's blade. If the ball touches the side of the bat, it is called an "edge". The batter does not have to play a shot and can allow the ball to go through to the wicket-keeper. Equally, the batter does not have to attempt a run when hitting the ball with their bat. Batters do not always seek to hit the ball as hard as possible, and a good player can score runs by simply making a deft stroke with a turn of the wrists, or by simply "blocking" the ball but directing it away from fielders so that the player has time to take a run. A wide variety of shots are played, the batter's repertoire including strokes named according to the style of swing and the direction aimed: e.g., "cut", "drive", "hook", and "pull".[106] The batter on strike (i.e., the "striker") must prevent the ball from hitting the wicket and try to score runs by hitting the ball with their bat so that the batter and their partner have time to run from one end of the pitch to the other before the fielding side can return the ball. To register a run, both runners must touch the ground behind the popping crease with either their bats or their bodies (the batters carry their bats as they run). Each completed run increments the score of both the team and the striker.[107] Sachin Tendulkar is the only player to have scored one hundred international centuries.The decision to attempt a run is ideally made by the batter who has the better view of the ball's progress, and this is communicated by calling, usually "yes", "no" or "wait". More than one run can be scored from a single hit. Hits worth one to three runs are common, but the size of the field is such that it is usually difficult to run four or more.[107] To compensate for this, hits that reach the boundary of the field are automatically awarded four runs if the ball touches the ground en route to the boundary or six runs if the ball clears the boundary without touching the ground within the boundary. In these cases the batters do not need to run.[108] Hits for five are unusual and generally rely on the help of "overthrows" by a fielder returning the ball. If an odd number of runs is scored by the striker, the two batters have changed ends, and the one who was non-striker is now the striker. Only the striker can score individual runs, but all runs are added to the team's total.[107] Additional runs can be gained by the batting team as extras (called "sundries" in Australia) due to errors made by the fielding side. This is achieved in four ways: no-ball, a penalty of one extra conceded by the bowler if he breaks the rules;[109] wide, a penalty of one extra conceded by the bowler if they bowl so that the ball is out of the batter's reach;[110] bye, an extra awarded if the batter misses the ball and it goes past the wicket-keeper and gives the batters time to run in the conventional way;[111] and leg bye, as for a bye except that the ball has hit the batter's body, though not their bat.[111] If the bowler has conceded a no-ball or a wide, the bowler's team incurs an additional penalty because that ball (i.e., delivery) has to be bowled again, and hence the batting side has the opportunity to score more runs from this extra ball.[109][110] Specialist rolesMain articles: Captain (cricket) and Wicket-keeperThe captain is often the most experienced player in the team, certainly the most tactically astute, and can possess any of the main skillsets as a batter, a bowler or a wicket-keeper. Within the Laws, the captain has certain responsibilities in terms of nominating their players to the umpires before the match and ensuring that the captain's players conduct themselves "within the spirit and traditions of the game as well as within the Laws".[67] The wicket-keeper (sometimes called simply the "keeper") is a specialist fielder subject to various rules within the Laws about their equipment and demeanour. The wicket-keeper is the only member of the fielding side who can effect a stumping and is the only one permitted to wear gloves and external leg guards.[112] Depending on their primary skills, the other ten players in the team tend to be classified as specialist batters or specialist bowlers. Generally, a team will include five or six specialist batters, and four or five specialist bowlers, plus the wicket-keeper.[113][114] Umpires and scorersMain articles: Umpire (cricket), Scoring (cricket), and Cricket statistics An umpire signals a decision to the scorers. The Adelaide Oval cricket scoreboard during an Ashes Test in AustraliaThe game on the field is regulated by the two umpires, one of whom stands behind the wicket at the bowler's end and the other in a position called "square leg", which is about 15–20 m (49–66 ft) away from the batter on strike and in line with the popping crease on which that umpire is taking guard. The umpires have several responsibilities, including adjudication on whether a ball has been correctly bowled (i.e., not a no-ball or a wide); when a run is scored; whether a batter is out (the fielding side must first appeal to the umpire, usually with the phrase "How's that?" or "Howzat?"); when intervals start and end; and the suitability of the pitch, field and weather for playing the game. The umpires are authorised to interrupt or even abandon a match due to circumstances likely to endanger the players, such as a damp pitch or deterioration of the light.[78] Off the field in televised matches, there is usually a third umpire who can make decisions on certain incidents with the aid of video evidence. The third umpire is mandatory under the playing conditions for Test and Limited Overs International matches played between two ICC full member countries. These matches also have a match referee whose job is to ensure that play is within the Laws and the spirit of the game.[78] The match details, including runs and dismissals, are recorded by two official scorers, one representing each team. The scorers are directed by the hand signals of an umpire (see image, right). For example, the umpire raises a forefinger to signal that the batter is out (has been dismissed); the umpire raises both arms above their head if the batter has hit the ball for six runs. The scorers are required by the Laws to record all runs scored, wickets taken, and overs bowled; in practice, they also note significant amounts of additional data relating to the game.[115] A match's statistics are summarised on a scorecard. Prior to the popularisation of scorecards, most scoring was done by men sitting on vantage points cuttings notches on tally sticks, and runs were originally called notches.[116] According to historian Rowland Bowen, the earliest known scorecard templates were introduced in 1776 by T. Pratt of Sevenoaks and soon came into general use.[117] It is believed that scorecards were printed and sold at Lord's for the first time in 1846.[118] Scores are displayed differently depending on location, although it is standard to show how many wickets have been lost and how many runs a team has made. Within Australia, the format is Wickets/Runs, while in the rest of the world, the format is Runs/Wickets. For example, a score of 125 runs with 4 wickets lost would be displayed as 4/125 or 125/4, respectively.[119] Spirit of the GameMain article: Laws of CricketBesides observing the Laws, cricketers must respect the "Spirit of Cricket", a concept encompassing sportsmanship, fair play and mutual respect. This spirit has long been considered an integral part of the sport but is only nebulously defined. Amidst concern that the spirit was weakening, in 2000, a Preamble was added to the Laws instructing all participants to play within the spirit of the game. The Preamble was last updated in 2017, now opening with the line:[120] Cricket owes much of its appeal and enjoyment to the fact that it should be played not only according to the Laws, but also within the Spirit of Cricket. The Preamble is a short statement intended to emphasise the "positive behaviours that make cricket an exciting game that encourages leadership, friendship, and teamwork".[121] Its second line states that, "the major responsibility for ensuring fair play rests with the captains, but extends to all players, match officials and, especially in junior cricket, teachers, coaches and parents".[120] The umpires are the sole judges of fair and unfair play. They are required under the Laws to intervene in case of dangerous or unfair play or in cases of unacceptable conduct by a player. Previous versions of the Spirit identified actions that were deemed contrary (for example, appealing knowing that the batter is not out), but all specifics are now covered in the Laws of Cricket, the relevant governing playing regulations and disciplinary codes, or left to the judgement of the umpires, captains, their clubs and governing bodies. The terse expression of the Spirit of Cricket now avoids trying to enumerate the diverse cultural conventions that exist in the detail of sportsmanship, or its absence. Women's cricketMain article: Women's cricket Mithali Raj of India is the highest run scorer in women's international cricket.Women's cricket was first recorded in Surrey in 1745.[122] International development began at the start of the 20th century, and the first Test match was played between Australia and England in December 1934.[123] The following year, New Zealand joined them, and in 2007 Netherland became the tenth women's Test nation when they made their debut against South Africa. In 1958, the International Women's Cricket Council was founded (it merged with the ICC in 2005).[123] In 1973, the first Cricket World Cup of any kind took place when a Women's World Cup was held in England.[123] In 2005, the International Women's Cricket Council was merged with the International Cricket Council (ICC) to form one unified body to help manage and develop cricket. The ICC Women's Rankings were launched on 1 October 2015 covering all three formats of women's cricket. In October 2018 following the ICC's decision to award T20 International status to all members, the Women's rankings were split into separate ODI (for Full Members) and T20I lists.[124] GovernanceMain article: International Cricket Council ICC member nations. The (highest level) Test playing nations are shown in red; the associate member nations are shown in orange, with those with ODI status in a darker shade; suspended or former members are shown in dark grey.The International Cricket Council (ICC), which has its headquarters in Dubai, is the global governing body of cricket. It was founded as the Imperial Cricket Conference in 1909 by representatives from England, Australia and South Africa, renamed the International Cricket Conference in 1965 and took up its current name in 1989.[123] The ICC in 2017 has 105 member nations, twelve of which hold full membership and can play Test cricket.[125] The ICC is responsible for the organisation and governance of cricket's major international tournaments, notably the men's and women's versions of the Cricket World Cup. It also appoints the umpires and referees that officiate at all sanctioned Test matches, Limited Overs Internationals and Twenty20 Internationals. Each member nation has a national cricket board which regulates cricket matches played in its country, selects the national squad, and organises home and away tours for the national team.[126] In the West Indies, which for cricket purposes is a federation of nations, these matters are addressed by Cricket West Indies.[127] The table below lists the ICC full members and their national cricket boards:[128] Cricket governing bodiesNationGoverning bodyFull Member since[129]AfghanistanAfghanistan Cricket Board22 June 2017AustraliaCricket Australia15 July 1909BangladeshBangladesh Cricket Board26 June 2000EnglandEngland and Wales Cricket Board15 July 1909IndiaBoard of Control for Cricket in India31 May 1926IrelandCricket Ireland22 June 2017New ZealandNew Zealand Cricket31 May 1926PakistanPakistan Cricket Board28 July 1952South AfricaCricket South Africa15 July 1909Sri LankaSri Lanka Cricket21 July 1981West IndiesCricket West Indies31 May 1926ZimbabweZimbabwe Cricket6 July 1992Forms of cricketMain article: Forms of cricket A Test match between South Africa and England in January 2005. The men wearing black trousers are the umpires. Teams in Test cricket, first-class cricket and club cricket wear traditional white uniforms and use red cricket balls.Cricket is a multifaceted sport with multiple formats that can effectively be divided into first-class cricket, limited overs cricket, and historically, single wicket cricket. The highest standard is Test cricket (always written with a capital "T") which is in effect the international version of first-class cricket and is restricted to teams representing the twelve countries that are full members of the ICC (see above). Although the term "Test match" was not coined until much later, Test cricket is deemed to have begun with two matches between Australia and England in the 1876–77 Australian season; since 1882, most Test series between England and Australia have been played for a trophy known as The Ashes. The term "first-class", in general usage, is applied to top-level domestic cricket. Test matches are played over five days and first-class over three to four days; in all of these matches, the teams are allotted two innings each and the draw is a valid result.[130] Limited overs cricket is always scheduled for completion in a single day, and the teams are allotted one innings each. There are two main types: List A which normally allows fifty overs per team; and Twenty20 in which the teams have twenty overs each. Both of the limited overs forms are played internationally as Limited Overs Internationals (LOI) and Twenty20 Internationals (T20I). List A was introduced in England in the 1963 season as a knockout cup contested by the first-class county clubs. In 1969, a national league competition was established. The concept was gradually introduced to the other leading cricket countries and the first limited overs international was played in 1971. In 1975, the first Cricket World Cup took place in England. Twenty20 is a new variant of limited overs itself with the purpose being to complete the match within about three to four hours, usually in an evening session. The first Twenty20 World Championship was held in 2007. In addition, a few full-member cricket boards have decided to start leagues that are played in the T10 format,[131][132][133][134] in which games are intended to last approximately 90 minutes.[135][136] Most recently, in 2021, the England and Wales Cricket Board (ECB) introduced a new league featuring a hundred-ball tournament, known as The Hundred.[137] Limited overs matches cannot be drawn, although a tie is possible and an unfinished match is a "no result".[138][139] Single wicket was popular in the 18th and 19th centuries, and its matches were generally considered top-class. In this form, although each team may have from one to six players, there is only one batter in at a time, and that batter must face every delivery bowled while their innings lasts. Single wicket has rarely been played since limited overs cricket began. Matches tended to have two innings per team like a full first-class one and they could end in a draw.[140] CompetitionsCricket is played at both the international and domestic level. There is one major international championship per format, and top-level domestic competitions mirror the three main international formats. There are now a number of T20 leagues, which have spawned a "T20 freelancer" phenomenon.[141] International competitionsMain article: International cricketMost international matches are played as parts of 'tours', when one nation travels to another for a number of weeks or months, and plays a number of matches of various sorts against the host nation. Sometimes a perpetual trophy is awarded to the winner of the Test series, the most famous of which is The Ashes. The ICC also organises competitions that are for several countries at once, including the ICC Men's Cricket World Cup, ICC T20 World Cup and ICC Champions Trophy. A league competition for Test matches played as part of normal tours, the ICC World Test Championship, had been proposed several times, and its first instance began in 2019. A league competition for ODIs, the ICC Cricket World Cup Super League, began in August 2020 and lasted only for one edition. The ICC maintains Test rankings, ODI rankings and T20 rankings systems for the countries which play these forms of cricket. Competitions for member nations of the ICC with Associate status include the ICC Intercontinental Cup, for first-class cricket matches, and the World Cricket League for one-day matches, the final matches of which now also serve as the ICC World Cup Qualifier. The game's only appearance in an Olympic Games was the 1900 Olympics.[142] However, it is scheduled to make a return, with the T20 format of the game, in the 2028 Summer Olympics in Los Angeles.[143][144] National competitionsSee also: Category:Domestic cricket competitions Yorkshire County Cricket Club in 1895. The team first won the County Championship in 1893.First-classMain article: List of current first-class cricket teamsFirst-class cricket in England is played for the most part by the 18 county clubs which contest the County Championship. The concept of a champion county has existed since the 18th century but the official competition was not established until 1890.[44] The most successful club has been Yorkshire, who had won 32 official titles (plus one shared) as of 2019.[145] Australia established its national first-class championship in 1892–93 when the Sheffield Shield was introduced. In Australia, the first-class teams represent the various states.[146] New South Wales has the highest number of titles. The other ICC full members have national championship trophies called the Ahmad Shah Abdali 4-day Tournament (Afghanistan); the National Cricket League (Bangladesh); the Ranji Trophy (India); the Inter-Provincial Championship (Ireland); the Plunket Shield (New Zealand); the Quaid-e-Azam Trophy (Pakistan); the Currie Cup (South Africa); the Premier Trophy (Sri Lanka); the Shell Shield (West Indies); and the Logan Cup (Zimbabwe). Limited oversMain articles: List of domestic Twenty20 cricket competitions, T10 leagues, and The HundredOtherSee also: Minor Counties Cricket Championship and Second XI ChampionshipClub and school cricket Y.M.C.A. women playing cricket as part of 'sports for troops', Sydney University, 23 April 1941 The Old Baltimore Cricket Club, 1927Main articles: Village cricket, Club cricket, and Schools cricketThe world's earliest known cricket match was a village cricket meeting in Kent which has been deduced from a 1640 court case recording a "cricketing" of "the Weald and the Upland" versus "the Chalk Hill" at Chevening "about thirty years since" (i.e., c. 1611). Inter-parish contests became popular in the first half of the 17th century and continued to develop through the 18th with the first local leagues being founded in the second half of the 19th.[19] At the grassroots level, local club cricket is essentially an amateur pastime for those involved but still usually involves teams playing in competitions at weekends or in the evening. Schools cricket, first known in southern England in the 17th century, has a similar scenario and both are widely played in the countries where cricket is popular.[147] Although there can be variations in game format, compared with professional cricket, the Laws are always observed and club/school matches are therefore formal and competitive events.[148] The sport has numerous informal variants such as French cricket.[149] On the North American side, in 2023, Monroe Township High School, in Monroe Township, Middlesex County, New Jersey, launched the first U.S. high school cricket club.[150][151] RivalriesMain page: Category:Cricket rivalriesCultureMain page: Category:Cricket cultureInfluence on everyday lifeCricket has had a broad impact on popular culture, both in the Commonwealth of Nations and elsewhere. It has, for example, influenced the lexicon of these nations, especially the English language, with various phrases such as "that's not cricket" (that's unfair), "had a good innings" (lived a long life), and "sticky wicket". "On a sticky wicket" (aka "sticky dog" or "glue pot")[152] is a metaphor[153] used to describe a difficult circumstance. It originated as a term for difficult batting conditions in cricket, caused by a damp and soft pitch.[154] In the arts and popular cultureSee also: Cricket in fiction, Cricket in film and television, and Cricket poetryCricket is the subject of works by noted English poets, including William Blake and Lord Byron.[155] Beyond a Boundary (1963), written by Trinidadian C. L. R. James, is often named the best book on any sport ever written.[156] Tom Wills, cricketer and co-founder of Australian footballIn the visual arts, notable cricket paintings include Albert Chevallier Tayler's Kent vs Lancashire at Canterbury (1907) and Russell Drysdale's The Cricketers (1948), which has been called "possibly the most famous Australian painting of the 20th century."[157] French impressionist Camille Pissarro painted cricket on a visit to England in the 1890s.[155] Francis Bacon, an avid cricket fan, captured a batter in motion.[155] Caribbean artist Wendy Nanan's cricket images[158] are featured in a limited edition first day cover for Royal Mail's "World of Invention" stamp issue, which celebrated the London Cricket Conference 1–3 March 2007, first international workshop of its kind and part of the celebrations leading up to the 2007 Cricket World Cup.[159] In music, many calypsos make reference to the Sport of Cricket. Influence on other sportsCricket has close historical ties with Australian rules football and many players have competed at top levels in both sports.[160] In 1858, prominent Australian cricketer Tom Wills called for the formation of a "foot-ball club" with "a code of laws" to keep cricketers fit during the off-season. The Melbourne Football Club was founded the following year, and Wills and three other members codified the first laws of the game.[161] It is typically played on modified cricket fields.[162] In England, a number of association football clubs owe their origins to cricketers who sought to play football as a means of keeping fit during the winter months. Derby County was founded as a branch of the Derbyshire County Cricket Club in 1884;[163] Aston Villa (1874) and Everton (1876) were both founded by members of church cricket teams.[164] Sheffield United's Bramall Lane ground was, from 1854, the home of the Sheffield Cricket Club, and then of Yorkshire; it was not used for football until 1862 and was shared by Yorkshire and Sheffield United from 1889 to 1973.[165] In the late 19th century, a former cricketer, English-born Henry Chadwick of Brooklyn, New York, was credited with devising the baseball box score[166] (which he adapted from the cricket scorecard) for reporting game events. The first box score appeared in an 1859 issue of the Clipper.[167] The statistical record is so central to the game's "historical essence" that Chadwick is sometimes referred to as "the Father of Baseball" because he facilitated the popularity of the sport in its early days.[168] See alsoCricket portalSports portalGlossary of cricket termsWillow and StumpyRelated sports Street cricketBete-ombro – Brazilian versionPlaquita – Dominican versionBaseballComparison of baseball and cricketStoolballFootnotes The term "amateur" in this context does not mean someone who played cricket in his spare time. Many amateurs in first-class cricket were full-time players during the cricket season. Some of the game's greatest players, including W. G. Grace, held amateur status.
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